ABSTRACT
A readiness to fight in the front line and a commitment of resources were not a guarantee of the ability to handle armies, and judge ground. That came with experience of the small-scale warfare which was the common experience of war. This kind of fighting must have made commanders were well aware of the need for intelligence about the enemy and his movements. The performance of medieval commanders in major campaigns and battles has to be measured against the fact that such occasions were infrequent and might occur at any stage in their career. The Norman conquest of England and the Angevin conquest of South Italy were remarkable achievements by well organized armies led by commanders who were able to exploit circumstances and were at pains to conciliate. The medieval commander was first and foremost a man of rank. This became more and more essential as society’s divisions became more rigid.
