ABSTRACT
Every commander, every notable who aspired to influence in his theatre of power, had to contemplate battle. Without the will to battle, all other military activity was bluff, for in the end it was the ultimate hazard. Castles and fortified places were vital assets in the conduct of war, and very frequently battle arose out of sieges and relief attempts. A very notable battle that arose from the circumstances of raiding and siege was Frederick II’s victory at Cortenova on 27 November 1237. Commanders had at their disposal cavalry and infantry, which were nearly always organized separately. They were aware of the need for tactical control, and in the presence of the enemy they habitually drew up their armies in tactical groups, “battles” within which were incorporated the followers of the various lords who had brought forces. Across the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, war did not change radically. Its staple was destructive raiding punctuated with sieges and by battle.
