ABSTRACT
Castles were never the only fortifications in medieval Europe. By the end of the period there were cities everywhere, and most had stone fortifications. Siege was a test of political will and resources on both sides. The defenders needed to provide food and to maintain hope of ultimate success: the task was very much the same on the attackers’ side, complicated by the need to provide shelter and an infrastructure of support. Strong fortifications were an important factor in this struggle of wills. In the Muslim East, enormous towers began to appear in the fortifications of the thirteenth century in order to carry counterweight-trebuchets: the most obvious example is the great square structure known as Baybars’ Tower, which dominates the vulnerable southern wall of Crac des Chevaliers. In all areas, fortifications continued to dominate the pattern of war. Successful siege could achieve all that victory in battle offered and perhaps more, but at the price of much the same risks.
