ABSTRACT
Chapter summary
It has been found, using the Strange Situation test, that American infants’ attachment to their mother is secure in 70% of cases, avoidant (or insecure-avoidant) in a further 20%, and resistant (or insecure-resistant) in the remaining 10%. There is also evidence for a fourth category of disorganised attachment.
Individual differences on the Strange Situation test can be seen in terms of two dimensions: avoidant/withdrawal vs. proximity seeking; angry and resistant vs. emotional confidence.
The Strange Situation test is limited and artificial because the parent’s or caregiver’s behaviour is carefully controlled. Early research was limited by an excessive focus on children’s behaviour in the Strange Situation rather than their internal working models.
There is a positive association between the mother’s (or caregiver’s) attachment security and the child’s attachment security. This association depends on environmental rather than genetic factors.
Ainsworth argued in the maternal sensitivity hypothesis that an infant’s secure attachment to their mother depends mainly on the mother’s sensitivity. There is much support for this hypothesis. Infant secure attachment is associated with more positive emotional states and fewer negative emotional states later in childhood. The maternal sensitivity hypothesis de-emphasises the role played by the infant’s father.
The distribution of attachment types varies cross-culturally. However, these differences are greater within cultures than between them.
Bowlby argued in his monotropy hypothesis that babies are born with a tendency to become strongly attached to only one 222individual (typically the mother). In fact, one-third of infants become attached to at least five adults.
Bowlby argued in his maternal deprivation hypothesis that breaking the bond between mother and child in the early years can cause severe and irreversible emotional and other problems. In fact, the adverse effects of maternal deprivation are typically reversible, and family discord rather than separation is the major problem.
Privation (never having had a close relationship) generally has more serious and long-lasting effects on children than deprivation. Nevertheless, most of the adverse effects of extreme privation are reversible provided the child is placed in a loving family, as was found in the English & Romanian Adoptees Study. However, some long-lasting negative effects were found in that study (e.g., lower IQ; ADHD).
There are two stages of reaction to divorce within families: an initial crisis phase is followed by an adjustment phase.
There are often negative effects of divorce on children’s mental health. These negative aspects are exacerbated if there are high levels of inter-parental conflict post-divorce.
Some negative effects on children within families experiencing divorce are due to the genes they have inherited from their parents.
Child care typically has few (if any) negative effects on children’s social, emotional or cognitive development. Working mothers tend to have less depression and higher self-esteem than those who do not work; however, children of working mothers have the disadvantage that their mothers have less time available to spend with them.
