ABSTRACT
Chapter summary
Long-term memory depends on the depth of processing at the time of learning. It also depends on elaboration of processing and distinctiveness.
Long-term memory also depends on the relevance of stored information to the requirements of the memory test.
The method of loci is effective with word lists and lecture-style presentations. However, it is ineffective with written texts because visual material interferes with visual imagery.
The story method is an effective way of learning lists of unrelated words.
Successful mnemonic techniques involve meaningful encoding, an effective retrieval structure, and extensive practice.
Long-term memory is generally much better when revision time is mostly devoted to recalling the material rather than to further study. This is known as the testing effect.
473According to the dual memory theory, the testing effect occurs because retrieval of learning material during testing produces a second memory trace in addition to the memory trace formed during initial learning.
Distributed learning is generally more effective than massed learning. The optimal interval between successive presentations of the learning material increases as the period of time between the end of learning and subsequent memory test lengthens.
Distributed practice is effective because it is associated with greater attention to the learning material when re-presented.
Various study strategies (e.g., re-reading; flashcards; highlighting text) are popular with students. These strategies can be effective but are not optimally implemented by students. According to the misinterpreted-effort hypothesis, one reason for this is that students assume more effortful learning strategies are less effective than less effortful ones.
According to goal-setting theory, the harder the goals we set ourselves the higher the level of performance. This is especially the case when goal commitment is high.
Implementation intentions (sometimes described as “instant habits”) increase the probability of carrying out the actions required to attain a goal (e.g., exam success). They can be especially useful in minimising the adverse effects of distraction.
