Unscrupulous audacity of a condottiere with the wily patience of a Jesuit

Alexander Farnese, the Duke of Parma – ever efficient, ever resourceful, and ever relentless – was reconquering territory for his sovereign King Philip II of Spain. His most experienced Spanish troops, the famous tercios, had left the Netherlands under the terms of the Treaty of Arras. He was relying upon Walloon levies and units of German troops from the Empire. Regular payment of troops posed problems. The Army of Flanders always had cash-flow problems since Philip had made quite clear to Alva back in 1579 that there would be no funds from Spain, and payment must be raised from local provincial revenues. However, like all able commanders, he made do with what he had, avoiding excessive risks which would influence heavy casualties. He ensured his troops were regularly fed and supplied and in conflict avoided asking too much of units, and he shared the same campaign hardships as the ordinary soldier. ¹ And overall, it was paying off in terms of the troops being loyal to him, respecting his ability and having genuine empathy with him.