ABSTRACT
From the 13th century onward, a series of dynasties – Yuan, Ming, and Qing – ruled the entire central realm and resolutely claimed their zhengtong status. The Yuan and Qing were non-Han Chinese dynasties, while the Ming dynasty was continually at war with northern “barbarians.” From the Yuan Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, a great number of scholars adopted Neo-Confucianism in discussing legitimacy as well as the Northern Wei dynasty’s legitimacy. Fang Xiaoru appeals to Heavenly principles to discuss legitimacy and views a legitimate dynasty as one that embodies Confucian values of righteousness and benevolence. A considerable number of scholars after the Song Dynasty discussed legitimacy as well as the Northern Wei dynasty’s legitimacy dispute, typically building on the views of earlier scholars. The Yan scholar and the Ming scholar came to the conclusion that the Northern Wei and Southern Dynasties were illegitimate, the former due to its “barbarian” rulers and the latter due to its usurping the throne.
