ABSTRACT
White-collar crime is a global problem of enormous magnitude. Fraud, manipulation, embezzlement, and corruption incidents occur to varying degrees in every economy and society in the world. The fraudulent schemes and corporate corruption scandals of the past two decades have confirmed once again the continuing relevance of white-collar crime as a significant threat to the economic and social health of nations across the globe as well as an important area of criminological research. In a sample of white-collar offenders in the United States, Listwan et al. found that half of the individuals in the sample suffered rearrests. The recidivism exemplified from Norway and the United States is interesting, because the suspected misconduct or crime investigated by fraud examiners is necessarily the first time or the last time for offenders. Private policing remains a controversial issue that is worth further studies. The parameters, limits, and standards of private policing are varying and unclear in different jurisdictions.
