ABSTRACT
Learning is operationally defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior potential resulting from experience. This definition emphasizes that learning can only be inferred from an observable behavior change which may be affected by motivation to perform. It is appropriate and helpful to describe learning as an adaptive process through which individuals acquire the ability to predict and control their environments. Learning can occur directly, through personal experience, or indirectly, through observation of others or symbolic means (language). Psychology, as a science, 31attempts to discover cause-and-effect relationships that apply under naturalistic conditions. Experimentation involves manipulating an independent variable to determine the potential influence on a dependent variable. The study of adaptive learning involves systematically manipulating types of experience to determine how this influences the behavior of individuals. Group and small-N experimental procedures have been developed for this purpose. To address internal validity concerns, less complex animals, whose genetics and experiences can be more controlled than humans’ are often used as subjects. Adaptive learning is often studied in specialized apparatus permitting systematic manipulation of the independent variable and precise measurement of the dependent variable. The study of other animals in specialized apparatuses usually necessitates addressing the issue of external validity through replication with humans under naturalistic conditions. It is sometimes possible to simultaneously address internal and external validity by simulating the natural environment in the laboratory or introducing precision and control into the natural environment.
