ABSTRACT
An instrumental response can be shaped by aversive consequences in extinction, punishment, and avoidance. The chapter describes the difficulties in producing extinction; the contingencies which make punishment effective; and unwanted side effects of aversive reinforcers. Behavioral alternatives to spanking for behavior change. The topic of persistence shows how it can develop in the presence of aversive consequences, and can lead to desirable behaviors that are resistant to extinction. Two-process and cognitive theories of avoidance learning; and their application in therapy for obsessive-compulsive behavior. Approach-avoidance conflict occurs when a choice has both positive and negative consequences. Approach and avoidant styles of coping. Learned helplessness develops when aversive outcomes are neither predicted nor controllable. The modification of helplessness theory by the addition of attribution and locus of control. Extensions of helplessness to human depression. Neuroscience research on the role of the amygdala in human avoidance conditioning.
