ABSTRACT
Encoding is the acquisition of information, the formation of a memory. This chapter outlines variables that affect encoding in human learning, particularly in the free recall task. Encoding is determined by elaborative processing, or deep processing. Elaboration involves cognitive effort; expanding the memory trace through associations; and forming a distinctive trace in memory. Some important learning variables are spacing effects, retrieval practice, and arousal (stimulant drugs, and diurnal variations). Sleep learning and Targeted Memory Reactivation are presented as boxed material. Emotional arousal affects encoding, as shown by research on flashbulb memories and eyewitness memory. Known schemas affect how new events are selected, encoded, and organized, Schemas aid recall by providing organized retrieval cues, but also introduce false recall of schema consistent items. Metamemory beliefs about encoding can lead to mistaken study habits and poorer recall. Encoding is applied to some common student study techniques.
