Reform Movements and Gender

A number of societies outside the full imperialist orbit undertook significant gender reforms before and during the long 19th century, under strong Western influence but without intending a full Westernization pattern. The chapter looks particularly at changes in Russia from Peter the Great onward and at developments in Meiji Japan, but it also treats reform patterns in Korea, Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire. In all these cases reform efforts challenged earlier patriarchal definitions without seeking gender equality. Social class differences, particularly in societies that continued to depend heavily on female labor, also complicated the picture.