ABSTRACT
Chapter 2 covers the background of passport and border crossing history from ancient times until World War I. Mediaeval travel documents (safe conduct, letter of marque, billeta de sanità, sea brief) were followed by the creation of real passports in 17th-century France, when issuance of travel documents became a state monopoly. Developments in Russia and Prussia are mentioned also. Later, in the 19th century, two basic border regimes, the Western and the Eastern, were formed. The typology and the earlier development of these regimes are shown by examples from Britain, Russia, Germany, and the overseas territories. East Central Europe is presented through the examples of Austria 1 and Hungary—although constituting a single empire, in fact two countries of their own.
