ABSTRACT
Over the past decades, civil society has gained prominence in shaping heritage conservation, reflecting societal and political changes. Citizens' associations, NGOs, and community groups now play a powerful role in heritage management. A global society has led to specialised NGOs advocating for heritage protection against various threats. Civil society, as the third pillar alongside government and business, involves uncoerced human association for collective action with normative and substantive purposes. Michael Walzer defines it as a crucial defense against autocratic state power and economic exploitation. While international laws and conventions recognise civil society's role, actual participation remains limited in decision-making. UNESCO conventions mention civil society organisations but do not incorporate them in decision-making. In this context, the International Law Association (ILA) report highlights insufficient representation of community interests and a paternalistic attitude. The Faro Convention by the Council of Europe, though not a UN treaty, promotes citizens' participation in defining heritage management decisions. Participation, often hindered by crises and resource constraints, remains essential for heritage conservation.
