ABSTRACT
Iraq continues to grapple with instability and political disunity, 20 years after the United States-led invasion of the country toppled Saddam Hussein and his regime. The primary sources of political and security tensions remain the Sunni–Shia divide, ongoing conflicts between the Kurdistan Regional Government and Baghdad, and the Islamic State jihadist insurgency across the country. During the civil war that ensued, Shia cleric Muqtada al-Sadr and his Mahdi Army – a collection of militias that chiefly targeted US-led coalition forces deployed under Operation Iraqi Freedom – gained prominence among the Shia community. The former’s relative inactivity is likely explained by its inability to reorganise following several targeted killings of its senior leaders, coupled with an increase in the number of counter-terrorism operations conducted against it by Iraqi and partner security forces. Meanwhile, Sunni armed militias emerged as a consequence of the de-Ba’athification process. Iraq’s relations with the US are likely to dictate the success of the ongoing anti-ISIS campaign.
