ABSTRACT
From 2003 onwards, the Salvadoran state has been enmeshed in a prolonged battle with the Mara Salvatrucha gang for territorial control, political legitimacy and economic resources. The MS-13 was established in El Salvador in the mid-1990s by members deported from prisons in California, and by the early 2000s it had evolved into a considerable military force, capable of challenging the state. The MS-13 has since grown its military capabilities, using spikes in violence as leverage in negotiations with the government. Meanwhile, Barrio 18 has suffered from territorial losses and internal divisions. In early 2022, the Bukele administration achieved another fragile peace in which the MS-13 enjoyed certain privileges and protections for key members in exchange for reducing visible homicides.
