ABSTRACT
The Roman idea of western Europe as forming a political whole began to give place to the modern idea that although Europe is united in civilization it is divided in government. The modern idea was certain to win because it was true; it is clear to anyone who has read this book that the barbarian invasions had in truth shattered the Roman Empire into fragments. The English were quite ready to accept this definition of a nation, and only replied that as a matter of fact their government did include a number of groups—the English, Irish and Welsh—and therefore their claim was justified. Almost every part of France was now prosperous. Agriculture was better there than anywhere else in Europe. The towns were growing in size and numbers. The States General was summoned three times by Philip IV—in 1302, to support the king in his war with Boniface VIII about papal taxation.
