ABSTRACT
Culture is universal, comprising both objective and subjective aspects (including time perspective). Hofstede's cultural dimensions and Triandis's cultural syndromes describe how cultures differ regarding values, beliefs, and behavioural norms. Both authors identify individualism-collectivism; Triandis added cultural complexity and tight vs. loose cultures, the most relevant in relation to time perception. Timing and synchronization of individuals’ and groups’ behaviour are fundamentally important for social functioning. English-speaking cultures, which are likely to be both individualist and complex, see time as a commodity; collectivist cultures regard time as a limitless, ‘elastic’ resource; they commonly adopt a monochronic and polychronic view of time, respectively. The ‘Pace of Life’ Index has found a strong link between economic affluence and typical pace of life. While members of the same culture are likely to share a common view of time, males’ and females’ respective experience of time may well differ; for example, while the stigma attached to menstruation is reducing, it remains a frequent and regular ‘marker event’ throughout much of a female's life. Some evidence exists for synchronization of female menstruation. Giving birth represents another uniquely female time-related experience: feminist researchers have distinguished between medical time (industrial’) and natural birthing time (‘lived’), which may conflict. Two world-wide studies have confirmed popular perceptions regarding the relative effects for men and women of marriage.
