ABSTRACT
Nevertheless, these philosophical movements touched only a handful of people, and the effect of intellectual elitism, though profound, is always delayed. The 173 years from the defeat of Hannibal to the accession of Augustus, in 30 bce, were years of political and intellectual turmoil. Carthage, Rome's great rival in the western Mediterranean, was finally destroyed in 146 and Africa became a province of Rome. Greek literary, artistic and behavioural influences had already flooded in since the conquest of Hannibal's allies in the eastern Mediterranean, leaving the Romans confused about standards of good conduct. Pressure from the urban poor and from Rome's Italian allies increasingly forced further democratic concessions, but the system of government was not strong enough to withstand the accompanying threats of anarchy and serial tyranny. The Social War with the Italians (91–88) and the Civil War of 83–82 brought the conflict to a head. After the great reformer Julius Caesar was assassinated in the year 44 for having taken too much power to himself too fast (albeit, in his own opinion, on behalf of the Roman people), constitutional reform was essential.
