ABSTRACT
DEFEATS OF INCUMBENTS The defeat of a top officer is usually accompanied by a deep membership dissatisfaction with wages and working conditions, or with the power and status of the union or occupation(s) in society. Perhaps defeats are more likely to occur when conditions are perceived as threatening or deteriorat ing, but opportunities for economic benefits or union growth which have been forgone may also provide a stimulus (see Weir, 1970; Barbash, 1967: 98). However, the defeat of a top officer is, with few exceptions, also accom panied by a political split among important full-time officials, one of whom usually becomes the standard-bearer for the opposition and the candidate who replaces the incumbent. Indeed, we have suggested that the availability of other highly-placed full-time officials with independent power is one of the most important structural characteristics which facilitates successful opposition. We are more concerned here with discussing the role of formal organisation, some common problems of fraud and legitimacy in elections involving defeats, and some general background on leadership styles and power in recent critical cases in American unions which puts the entire matter in context.
