ABSTRACT
S i g n i f i c a n t n u m b e r s o f the w o r l d ' s p o p u l a t i o n are r o u t i n e l y s u b j e c t t o t o r t u r e , s t a r v a t i o n , t e r r o r i s m , h u m i l i a t i o n , m u t i l a t i o n , and even m u r d e r s i m p l y because t h e y are female. C r i m e s such as these against any g r o u p o t h e r than w o m e n w o u l d be r e c o g n i z e d as ac i v i l and p o l i t i c a l e m e r g e n c y as w e l l as agross v i o l a t i o n o f the v i c t i m s ' h u m a n i t y . Yet, d e s p i t e ac l e a r record o f deaths and d e m o n s t r a b l e abuse, w o m e n ' s rights are n o t c o m m o n l y classified as h u m a n rights. This is p r o b l e m a t i c b o t h t h e o r e t i c a l l y and p r a c t i c a l l y , because i t has g r a v e consequences f o r the w a y s o c i e t y v i e w s and treats the f u n d a m e n t a l issues o f w o m e n ' s lives. This paper q u e s t i o n s w h y w o m e n ' s rights and h u m a n rights are v i e w e d as d i s t i n c t , l o o k s at the p o l i c y i m p Ii c a t i o n s o f t h i s schism, and discusses d i f f e r e n t approaches t o c h a n g i n g it. W o m e n ' s h u m a n rights are v i o l a t e d in av a r i e t y o f ways. O f course,
w o m e n sometimes suffer abuses such as p o l i t i c a l repression t h a t are s i m i l a r t o abuses suffered by men. In these s i t u a t i o n s , f e m a l e v i c t i m s are o f t e n i n v i s i b l e , because the d o m i n a n t image o f the p o l i t i c a l a c t o r i n o u r w o r l d is male. H o w e v e r , m a n y v i o l a t i o n s o f w o m e n ' s h u m a n rights are d i s t i n c t l y c o n n e c t e d t o b e i n g f e m a l e - t h a t is, w o m e n are d i s c r i m i n a t e d against and abused on the basis o f gender. W o m e n also e x p e r i e n c e sexual abuse in s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e t h e i r o t h e r h u m a n rights are b e i n g v i o l a t e d , as p o l i t i c a l prisoners o r members o f persecuted e t h n i c groups, f o r e x a m p l e . In t h i s p a p e r Iaddress those abuses i n w h i c h g e n d e r is ap r i m a r y o r related f a c t o r because g e n d e r - r e l a t e d abuse has been most neglected and offers the greatest c h a l - lenge t o t h e f i e l d o f h u m a n rights today. The c o n c e p t o f h u m a n rights is o n e o f the f e w m o r a l v i s i o n s ascribed
t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . A l t h o u g h its scope is n o t u n i v e r s a l l y agreed u p o n , i t strikes
d e e p c h o r d s o f response a m o n g many. P r o m o t i o n o f h u m a n rights is aw i d e l y a c c e p t e d goal and thus p r o v i d e s auseful f r a m e w o r k f o r seeking redress o f g e n d e r abuse. Further i t is o n e o f the f e w c o n c e p t s t h a t speaks t o the need f o r t r a n s n a t i o n a l a c t i v i s m and c o n c e r n a b o u t the lives o f p e o p l e g l o b a l l y . The U n i v e r s a l D e c l a r a t i o n o f H u m a n Rights, 1a d o p t e d in 1 9 4 8 , s y m b o l i z e s this w o r l d v i s i o n and defines h u m a n rights b r o a d l y . W h i l e n o t m u c h is said a b o u t w o m e n , A r t i c l e 2e n t i t l e s all to " t h e rights and freedoms set f o r t h in this D e c l a r a t i o n , w i t h o u t d i s t i n c t i o n o f any k i n d , such as race, c o l o u r , sex, language, r e l i g i o n , p o l i t i c a l o r o t h e r o p i n i o n , n a t i o n a l o r social o r i g i n , p r o p - erty, b i r t h o r o t h e r status." Eleanor Roosevelt and the Latin A m e r i c a n w o m e n w h o f o u g h t f o r the i n c l u s i o n o f sex i n the D e c l a r a t i o n and f o r its passage c l e a r l y i n t e n d e d t h a t i t w o u l d address the p r o b l e m o f w o m e n ' s s u b o r d i n a - tion.2 Since 1 9 4 8 the w o r l d c o m m u n i t y has c o n t i n u o u s l y debated v a r y i n g
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f h u m a n rights i n response t o g l o b a l d e v e l o p m e n t s . L i t t l e o f t h i s discussion, h o w e v e r , has addressed questions o f gender, and o n l y rec e n t l y have s i g n i f i c a n t challenges been made t o av i s i o n o f h u m a n rights w h i c h e x c l u d e s m u c h o f w o m e n ' s experiences. The c o n c e p t o f h u m a n rights, l i k e a l l v i b r a n t visions, is n o t static o r the p r o p e r t y o f any o n e g r o u p ; rather, its m e a n i n g expands as p e o p l e r e c o n c e i v e o f t h e i r needs and hopes in r e l a t i o n t o it. In t h i s s p i r i t , f e m i n i s t s r e d e f i n e h u m a n rights abuses t o i n c l u d e the d e g r a d a t i o n and v i o l a t i o n o f w o m e n . The s p e c i f i c e x p e r i e n c e s o f w o m e n must be added t o t r a d i t i o n a l approaches t o h u m a n rights i n o r d e r t o make w o m e n m o r e v i s i b l e and t o t r a n s f o r m the c o n c e p t and p r a c t i c e o f h u m a n rights i n o u r c u l t u r e so t h a t i t takes b e t t e r a c c o u n t o f w o m e n ' s lives. In the n e x t p a r t o f this a r t i c l e , Iw i l l e x p l o r e b o t h the i m p o r t a n c e and
the d i f f i c u l t y o f c o n n e c t i n g w o m e n ' s rights t o h u m a n rights, and t h e n Iw i l l o u t l i n e f o u r basic approaches t h a t have been used i n the e f f o r t t o make this c o n n e c t i o n .
