ABSTRACT

Advanced, developed, or industrial democracies are common designations denoting a group of countries that include Canada, Europe, Japan, and the United States. Citizens actively participate in governance, usually through constitutionally established and maintained privileges. The enforcement of public policy is assigned to institutions that are legally entitled to make decisions and that have the ability to act on them. Contemporary literature extends a measured recognition that the European practices of the seventeenth century were the precursors to the emergence of modern bureaucracies. Between 1650 and 1850, the West experienced significant political and economic upheaval that resulted in reexamination and restructuring of its administrative systems. The predominance of law in the French liberal state of the nineteenth century emphasized guarantees of citizens' rights and limits on state power but it 'eclipsed social science-based public administration'. The industrial revolution sharpened, refined, and rationalized the managerial concepts and practices to serve capitalist objectives, particularly maximization of capital returns on investments.