ABSTRACT
Expectations held by students, teachers, and parents can all impact achievement and socioemotional health, making this phenomenon important to recognize. When expectations are easily falsifiable, expectation effects tend to be small and dissipate over time. But when expectations are not easily falsifiable and reinforced by authority figures, social norms, and institutional practices, expectation effects can be large with lasting consequences. Expectations can shape outcomes. They often lead to behaviors that cause expectations to be realized, resulting in a self-fulfilling prophecy. When people sincerely believe in something that is reinforced by authority and not easily falsifiable, this alone can make it so. Such effects are larger among students who are young or from marginalized groups, which underscores the perils of common practices like ability grouping and labeling. When students are labeled, their achievement may be elevated or reduced due to associations with the label.
