ABSTRACT
This chapter outlines and discusses the full range of affirmative action programmes in Malaysia. I begin with a deeper dive into the policy’s constitutional authorization, as well as the core of the transformative New Economic Policy, noting that both these foundational documents are premised on Bumiputera capability development and provide grounds for affirmative action to be amended over time. The chapter then presents a systematic and detailed overview of the quotas and programmes Malaysia has implemented to promote Bumiputera representation in secondary and higher education, high-level occupations, enterprise, and wealth and property ownership. From 1970s, the interventions in education steadily expanded, with some introduction of non-Bumiputera quotas but still a vast Bumiputera-preferential system, while in employment the concentration of efforts in the public sector and government-linked entities has become embedded in a more de facto manner. Enterprise development programmes have arguably been the most politically prioritized policy sector, and they have undergone the most change, while wealth and property ownership remain broadly in force, albeit with some rollback over time. Recent policy rhetoric, and selected practices, have emphasized Bumiputera capability and competitiveness, but not in a systematic and comprehensive manner.
