ABSTRACT
Whereas most of the organized violence of the period 950–1100 was generated by Muslim power seekers, a more intense wave of violence during the period 1100–1260 was the result of outside forces. This was the period of the Reconquista in Iberia, the Crusades in Anatolia and Syria, and the Mongols in Iran and Iraq. The Crusades had little lasting impact, but the Reconquista resulted in the loss of all self-governing Iberian Muslim provinces except Granada. Meanwhile, Chinggis Khan’s invasion of 1219–22 devastated eastern Iran and Hulagu’s invasion of 1253–1260 resulted in the Il-khanate, a cosmopolitan Mongol regime over Iran and Iraq.
