ABSTRACT
In this chapter I trace the development of two ideas that together form the basis of modern western environmentalism. The first is the idea that humans should consider their environmental surroundings in their actions—that we have a responsibility toward the nonhuman world. This includes the contested notions that places can have spiritual value, that animals have intrinsic worth and should have rights, and that there is a proper state of nature and therefore a proper relationship between human and nonhuman. The second idea is about our responsibility toward one another: that humans have, or ought to have, certain universal rights and freedoms, that these include, or should include, fair access to ecological goods and services, and that each individual and group should consider the consequences of their actions for others. Together, these ideologies of responsibility have been central to the development of modern civilization. In their emergence, we can see the foundations of western environmentalism. With a focus on early modern Europe, I explore the concepts of materialism, mechanism, and utilitarian worldviews that advanced industrialization. I then turn to spiritual and romanticized concepts of nature and the Darwinian science that simultaneously enabled and challenged them. Finally, I consider early thoughts on property ownership, class stratification, and social responsibility.
