The crisis of the Principate and recovery under the Flavians, 69 to 96 c.e.

The most important ancient source for the events of 69 and the Flavian dynasty emperors is the historian Tacitus. The Julio-Claudians had recruited men like him in order to have a group of loyal followers to counterbalance champions of the old order in the senate: Otho’s grandfather had been raised in Livia’s household and reached the praetorship. Vespasian increased legionary recruitment from the more martial youth of Gaul and Spain, where military academies for the training of future Roman officers became ever more common. Vespasian inaugurated a new age of municipalization in the Roman world. One common feature of Roman cities is the presence of latrines in private homes and public spaces. Despite a reputation for being tight with money, Vespasian spent freely on imperial armies; on roads, bridges, and fortifications in the provinces; on public buildings in Rome; and on literature and education.