Introduction Provides a literature review of racial profiling studies covering racial bias, gender bias, contraband, citations, search, and consent search

Several researchers have shown that the public believes racism and race relations problems are persistent in the United States (Gabbidon & Higgins, 2009; Hurwitz & Peffley, 1997; Sampson & Lauritsen, 1997; Skogan, 1995; Walker, Spohn, & DeLone, 2012; Weitzer, 2002). Many people in the public and in academia believe that race relations issues are covert rather than overt. For example, imagine an apartment building has a room for rent. When a minority person comes to see or apply for the apartment, he or she is politely told it has been rented when this is not the case. This is covert racism. In police traffic stops, covert actions may increase the danger level because individuals are inclined to hide their racism to avoid being politically incorrect. Compounding the problem is the fact that race relations issues are not only conscious issues, but also, they may be subconscious and result from implicit bias that can arise as individuals from other races and ethnicities interact (Dovidio, Kawakami, & Gaertner, 2000). The conscious and subconscious nature of race relations may influence an individual’s behavior. Race relations can have their genesis in stereotypes.