ABSTRACT
Human Trafficking: A Global Examination of Perspectives, Policy, and Application ����� 152 Literature Review ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 152 International Concerns, Policy, and Prevention ��������������������������������������������������������� 152 Port Security ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 153 Human Trafficking and the Law ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 154 The Role of Corruption ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 154 Social Implications������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 155 The Victims ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 155 Limited Resources �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 156 Future Implications ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 156 Conclusion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 158 References ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 159
Abstract Human trafficking is examined as both a domestic and international concern� While the correlation between the two is plausible, the extant literature indicates that little has been done to address these ongoing issues� This chapter provides information regarding the issue of human trafficking and transportation and border concerns in the United States as well as other parts of the World� Even though governments have attempted to address these issues, human trafficking rates have been largely unaffected by law and policies� As a result, women, boys, and girls continue to be victimized and are likewise at risk of continued victimization� While a primary goal of this work is to increase awareness regarding the nature and extent of the human trafficking, focus on global collaborative efforts, policies, and policing practices are discussed�
The trafficking of humans is a growing human rights concern both globally and within the United States� In the U�S� alone, all types of forced labor resulting from human trafficking has yielded a profit of approximately $32 billion� Although it is difficult to accurately quantify this growing problem due to the underground and secretive nature of trafficking networks and practices, conservative estimates suggest that over two and a half million people worldwide are in forced labor due to having been trafficked (Belser, de Cock, & Mehran, 2005; International Labour Organization [ILO], 2005)� Of these estimates, children comprise 40-50% of all trafficked persons (ILO, 2005)� It has been estimated that between 600,000 and 800,000 persons are trafficked across international borders annually, of which 80% are women and girls and of these approximately 43% are trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation� Women have been sold, bought, and exchanged while continually suffering from repeated physical and sexual abuse� In fact, trafficking women for prostitution is defined, for many, as a form of modern day slavery (Trafficking Victims Protection Act [TVPA], 2000)� Trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation, also known as sex trafficking, is a form of human trafficking that affects a large number of women and girls globally each year resulting in many silent victims who are unknown to society (Miller, Decker, Silverman, & Raj, 2007)� In addition to the trafficking of women, young children are also being trafficked for profit and sexual exploitation� Specifically, child trafficking involves the recruitment, transport, and transfer of children through abduction, deception, or for exploitative purposes (Unicef, 2005)� Although the research is limited, child trafficking remains a serious social concern, particularly in South and East Asia and is related to poverty, educational attainment, lack of equal opportunity and protection, and the prevalent demand for sexual acts with girls (Deb, 2009; Deb, Mukherjee, & Mathews, 2011)�
International Concerns, Policy, and Prevention
The larger global perspective is similar to that of the United States, and while policies and practices are varied, human trafficking for prostitution purposes is seen as unacceptable both domestically and internationally (Macy & Graham, 2012)� Research describing patterns of trafficking from and within South-Eastern Europe has assisted with efforts to effectively tackle human trafficking and associated crimes through the strategic use of the criminal justice system� Attention has primarily been placed on victims of trafficking – identifying who they are and factors that make them vulnerable� There is further need to address traffickers’ behavior, law enforcement, as well as social and economic reforms (Surtees, 2008)� In Israel, trafficking women for prostitution is a serious criminal offense in which they have harsh punishments against perpetrators� In addition to laws and regulations, the Chinese also created campaigns against human trafficking and prostitution� Human
trafficking in Serbia has been addressed through recent developments focused on a system of protection, assistance, and support of victims of human trafficking� This system established that victims be utilized as witnesses in criminal proceedings� And despite efforts made thus far, further improvements are needed, in terms of developing support and protection for child victims (Simeunovic-Patic & Copic, 2010)� In Albania, researchers analyzed court files relating to human trafficking between 1995 and 2003� The goal was to uncover profiles and developments in trafficking network structures as well as their financial modus operandi� Findings revealed two initial profiles (an Albanian and a post-Soviet profile), which are gradually evolving into multi-ethnic and transnational profiles� In closed ethnic networks, family and clan are essential to understanding the scope of the practices operating within a relatively homogeneous culture of friendship coalitions (Leman & Janssens, 2008)� Countries in Europe also deal with human trafficking and have tried to alleviate this social problem� Motives, or push factors, associated with trafficking and why women get involved have been explained by aspirations for a better standard of living, economic difficulties, debt in their home country, and potential glorification of western countries (i�e�, a pull factor)� Finland, in particular, has been identified as a destination country where women have been sold into prostitution and have more opportunities to earn money compared to earning potential in their home country (Viuhko, 2010)� Germaine to this is also geographic location and access of border countries which have been purported to explain transport of Russian and Estonian women to Finland� Additionally, several border security concerns involve the ease and diverse ability for transportation to Finland from Russia by ferry, train, or car� In addition to varied transportation, there are no visa requirements for Estonians to enter Finland, which only supports trafficking success�
Port Security
Eighty percent of the entire world trade interaction occurs as the result of relationships between ports and people all over the world� One of the most significant factors related to effective policing designed to prevent and or decrease opportunities for human trafficking include border security in transit and destination countries� Since September 11, 2001, port security and regulations have increased monitoring and more countries have been identified to assist with effective implementation; however, even with these increases in security, uncertainty still remains� The importance of border security has also been heightened by the existence of recent terrorist attacks, trafficking illegal drugs, and environmental crimes such as pollution and corruption (Eski, 2011; Surtees, 2008)� In an attempt to identify varying transportation patterns associated with successful human trafficking practices, research conducted by Parmentier (2010), produced distinctions between countries of origin, countries of transit, and countries of destination of trafficked persons� Findings indicated a relationship between countries of transit and countries of destination but also brought increased attention to the likelihood that trafficked persons may spend a lengthy amount of time in a number of consecutive countries or a particular country if travel to a final destination country was abandoned� Future research honed on increased attention to port security as well as transnational insecurities is recommended� As China moved towards industrialization and urbanization in the
1980s, growth of prostitution victims also emerged (Liu, 2012)� Research highlighting the relationship between economic reform policies and increased migrants into China has emerged� It is further argued that recent increases in migrant patterns impact the ease at which traffickers transport women and children into the country�
Human Trafficking and the Law
Official criminal justice data reveal that organized crimes remain under-reported, under-detected, and, therefore, under-prosecuted (Goodey, 2008)� The reality is that human trafficking is a crime that has been systematically difficult to prosecute and punish participants in this well-organized industry� Albeit limited, emerging trends among human traffickers indicate that organized systems of support exist that impede effective policing, arrest, and convictions� While the role of supporters vary, it has been learned that active traffickers operate from their home country and are the primary organizers which also impact the likelihood of them being caught (Viuhko, 2010)� Also, the fact that human traffickers are supported by various intermediaries such as landlords and owners comprising an extensive network makes it difficult for police authorities to identify high level actors (Viuhko, 2010)� The truth is that patterns of human trafficking are so diverse and limitations are prevalent and have been considered as paralyzing to police authorities� Even contemporary changes in the identification of traffickers as male has experienced diversity more recently� And while most traffickers are male in the Southern and Eastern parts of Europe, in other countries, such as Moldova, Romania, and Ukraine, an emergent trend has been realized in the recruitment of female traffickers� International differences are also present when examining South-Eastern Europe where human trafficking is by organized criminal groups, compared to South-East Asia where trafficking is often informal and managed through personal connections (Surtees, 2008)�
The Role of Corruption
Across the world, there are high levels of police corruption related to human trafficking and most other organized criminal activity whereby organized systems are in play� This is evidenced by the consistent patterns of trafficking of children and women within and across borders for the purpose of control and profit (Chatterjee, Chakraborty, Srivastava, & Deb, 2006; Goodey, 2003)� To compound the concern, that human trafficking and related sexual exploitations of women and children remain largely ignored by police authorities only adds support to arguments suggesting the role of corruption is an extensive one� In fact, it has been found that a significant relationship exists between enforcing laws against human trafficking and the level of corruption within law enforcement� Specifically, in Latin America, Sacco Studnicka’s (2010) research found that human trafficking in Brazil was largely dependent upon official corruption in 71% of the examined cases� Likewise, in China, corruption among law enforcement authorities makes it difficult to effectively measure and ban these practices (Liu & Finckenauer, 2010)� These results indicate that because human trafficking is dependent on the corruption variable to combat human trafficking effectively, political corruption must be addressed at the onset of any new policy or law changes (Sacco Studnicka, 2010; Surtees, 2008)�
Social Implications
The relationship between human trafficking and prostitution is well discussed in the extant literature� Ideologies surrounding the relationship between prostitution and human trafficking maintain that certain concerns may be better examined in relation to immigration and other social and environmental conditions that lead to this behavior� Although myriad people believed that women become prostitutes because of poverty, Liu extends this definition and further explains that many women within the sex industry are not only poor but from lower-class families with limited education� Thereby establishing a generational connection similar to William Julius Wilson’s The Truly Disadvantaged whereby the extent of poverty is exacerbated by additional factors related to limited knowledge about resources (Wilson, 1990)� Some common misconceptions about the relationship between sexual abuse, prostitution, and entry into the human trafficking industry are dispelled by Liu (2012) who explains that it is not childhood experiences and sexual abuse alone that act as motivating factors, rather different situational factors� When examining data on prostitution and associated factors, support establishing these connections emerges� Specifically, in her examination, Liu (2012) reports that factors leading to the development of prostitution for women in China involved a combination of family conditions, childhood experiences, as well as education and employment histories� Relatedly, and depending on economic instability, prostitution becomes a viable option for women�
The Victims
Victims of human trafficking have an extensive need for social services in mental and physical health� The level of damage incurred by women and children is significant� Research has shown that children who are trafficked suffer more in victimization experiences when compared to their adult counterparts� According to the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA, 2000), all minors under the age of 18 who commit a commercial sex act are considered to be victims of human trafficking whether it be fraud, force, or coercion� The vulnerability associated with being prostituted as a minor has a theorized pathway that begins with strain risk factors that act as the foundation whereby a sequence of events occurring range from running away, the consumption of drugs and alcohol, sexual denigration, and forced prostitution as a minor (Reid, 2011)� While there are social and environmental factors related to the existence and prevalence of human trafficking rates of women and children, a number of vulnerability factors used to trap these victims have been identified� A segment of the discussion on human trafficking has focused on the willing participation of women� However, the research indicates that women who willingly participate in human trafficking are often deceived about either the nature of the activity or the conditions awaiting them at their destination� These women are also misguided about the nature of activities they will be forced to engage in as well as the expected earning potential� In addition to being deceived, traffickers resort to a variety of means to ensure that women remain enslaved which includes restricting contact with family and friends and withholding legal travel documents (Viuhko, 2010)� Additionally, many victims often do not trust that police and criminal justice authorities have the ability to protect them and their families from their
offenders� Finally, there is concern that victims are often unaware of how to report their abuse and/or are unable to do so� It is also the case that victims are scared to report their abusers to criminal justice officials for fear of retaliation (Goodey, 2008)�
Limited Resources
To address limited resources in identifying human trafficking victims, strategies have been developed� Strategies for identifying sex trafficking victims include trafficking indicators, victim interaction strategies, immediate response strategies, and child-specific information and strategies� Several human trafficking indicators include evidence that the person is being controlled, does not have the freedom of decision making to leave, signs of physical abuse as well as indications of fear and depression (Macy and Graham, 2012)� Women and children have been coined silent victims of prostitution and human trafficking largely as the result of fear, lack of knowledge about alternatives, isolation, and physical and psychological confinement, which offer some explanation as to why victims remain under the control of their traffickers (Logan, Walker, & Hunt, 2009; Viuhko, 2010)� Additional fears have been reported as fear of threat and harm to family members, fear of deportation, and a general mistrust of law enforcement agents� The growing concern regarding the general lack of knowledge and awareness of the extent to which human trafficking exists in society has been substantiated in cases where results reveal that human trafficking exists across a variety of labor sectors and is also an extremely profitable industry based in supply and demand� The nature and extent of human trafficking in the United States has been studied through the examination of data measuring levels of awareness and experiences among legal representatives� Research further highlighted a number of vulnerability factors indicating that extreme poverty is a major factor associated with being a target of human traffickers (Logan et al�, 2009)� And where policing is concerned, one of the main problems associated with identifying victims of human trafficking is limited resources�
In attempts to address human trafficking, many countries have responded with the creation of public campaigns against human trafficking and prostitution� However, in some countries, the focus remains heavily on abolishing prostitution (Liu, 2012)� And, while human trafficking appears to go hand in hand with the growth of prostitution, research demonstrating this directional correlation is lacking� Specific attention honed on protecting women’s rights requires support at all levels of society and government� To assist with the long lasting traumatic effects of victimizations against women and children, research suggests the need for funding in social and therapeutic services as well as increased target hardening strategies focused on the aggressive identification of offenders and their supporters’ apprehension and punishment (Herzog, 2008)� It is agreed that human trafficking for the purposes of sexual exploitation and victimization requires increased understanding and should be studied in several capacities examining the role of organized crime, mass economic migration and asylum, as well as
trends in gender-based violence and inequalities (Deb et al�, 2011; Goodey, 2003; Herzog, 2008)� While currently garnering support, there still remains a need for public education and awareness about the dangers and impact of human trafficking on society� In 2008, Wilson and Dalton provided several suggestions for increasing awareness about the significance of human trafficking� The issue of human trafficking is a social concern that is largely misunderstood due to lack of resources and limited research� As a result, policy makers and practitioners alike have launched campaigns designed to increase awareness through training, education, and outreach programs� While successful, improving police and justice officials’ law enforcement capacity, global practitioner collaboration, evidence-based program evaluations, as well as data-based decision making in legislative, legal, and regulatory changes are still needed� One of the greatest challenges to policing human traffickers, as well as other forms of organized crime, is related to difficulty in gathering actionable intelligence� As such, it is suggested that active policing occur in communities that have been historically closed to routine policing and in areas where there is a high level of mistrust of law enforcement� To get to this, more intentional and systematic research examining perceptions of police and law enforcement is suggested (Lebov, 2010)� Capturing and punishing human traffickers is at the forefront of societal concern; however, there is also a need for laws that account for protections of victimized women and children’s human rights� Proposed changes in law and policy is a frontline defense for police and justice authorities� As such, there are certain definitional limitations associated with human trafficking to be addressed that will align definitional consistency, legal descriptions, and penalties for persons who traffic human beings� Parmentier (2010) suggests a comprehensive approach to addressing human trafficking that includes the development of qualitative approaches to study persons involved in trafficking organizations� Additionally, researchers have noted that human trafficking is defined in different ways depending on the country or the region; these differences need to be consistent to facilitate cooperation among law enforcement agencies� This further supports the need for definitional distinctions of human trafficking within the literature that will potentially increase the criminal justice system’s ability to enforce appropriate punishments for human traffickers� Regarding future global policy implications, it would be noteworthy to mention Gallagher and Holmes’ (2008) eight essential elements of an effective response to human trafficking� These eight elements are as follows: (1) a comprehensive legal framework, in compliance with international standards; (2) a specialist law enforcement capacity to investigate human trafficking; (3) a general law enforcement capacity to respond effectively to trafficking cases; (4) strong and well-informed prosecutorial and judicial support; (5) quick and accurate identification of victims along with immediate protection and support; (6) special support to victims and witnesses; (7) systems and processes that enable effective international investigative and judicial cooperation in trafficking cases; and (8) an effective coordination among international agencies working collaboratively to reduce human trafficking� Identifying interpersonal violence and trafficking experiences of victims remains to be an important role for existing programs focused on violence against women� While healthcare officials are often not focused on indicators associated with human trafficking, they are in unique positions to make inquiries, identify, report, and support efforts
designed to combat human trafficking (Miller et al�, 2007)� Research suggests that the healthcare system can act to train staff on the identification of risk factors associated with possible human trafficking incidents� Developing client-responsive, culturally appropriate, and sensitive screening strategies is also needed and supported as a next step� Additional strategies for service providers were also developed to assist in interactions with victims� Interaction strategies include building trust and rapport with potential victims, procedural issues in conducting interviews, messages that service providers should convey to potential victims, and questioning potential victims with indirect questions when he or she is alone excluding words such as coercion, trafficking, and force� According to reviewed literature, documents suggested that service providers contact the National Human Trafficking Resource Center’s (NHTRC) hotline for further information on how to provide assistance to potential victims� In instances where victims may be in immediate danger, law enforcement authorities should be contacted� Police and justice officials are also tasked with assisting with research focused on identifying more comprehensive strategies used by human traffickers beyond the scope of what is already known about offenders, to include connections to criminal networks, supporters (including corrupt partners), recruiting patterns, and transportation methodologies which act to better understand the dynamics of recruitment while also helping to formulate new responses� More honed focus should be placed on countries where there is government corruption, high infant mortality rates, large populations, and social conflict which are all known to contribute to a country’s market for human trafficking (Wooditch, 2012)� Having intelligence is only half the battle to defense; police authorities should also be trained and continuously briefed on changing trends, i�e�, modes of transportation and identification of traffickers in order to affect reductions in the human trafficking industry�
The problem of human trafficking for the purposes of sexual exploitation and victimization is a national and global concern� For some time now, it has been maintained that human traffickers need to be targeted as serious criminal offenders, which is a daunting task, given the limitations associated with difficulties identifying and prosecuting key offenders (Herzog, 2008)� Human trafficking produces many related social concerns and areas of policy and practice evolution, which set the foundation for a much needed hands-on approach to impacting reductions� While it is difficult to gauge the exact extent of human trafficking, evidenced-based research has been conducted in Scotland that revealed a need for further qualitative inquiry of human trafficking survivors as well as a need for additional quantitative multi-agency data analysis (Lebov, 2010)� Currently, it is more likely that low-level offenders are identified and arrested which does not significantly impact the business of human trafficking� Even with the use of harsher punishment practices, severe punishments have not weakened the human trafficking industry� Research has its challenges and limitations and the study of human trafficking is no different� Human trafficking has several unique limitations associated with the study population of offenders and victims in that offenders are protected by those who benefit
financially while victims are known as an invisible population who remain silent as a result of fear and corruption (Gozdziak & Collett, 2005; Shauer & Wheaton, 2006)� And while the extant literature suggests a need for further study regarding the relationship between human trafficking and prostitution (Shauer & Wheaton, 2006), there are also links to social and environmental risk factors and their effect on propensity toward sex trafficking victimization that should be examined� Implications of human trafficking are substantial and affect society as a whole� Research should hone the examination of situational and environmental factors and their relationship with human trafficking and persistence (Liu, 2012)� It is further suggested that attention be focused on protection policies and victim identification� The larger fear is that if ignored, women and children will continue to be victims of exploitation and transported across borders as commodities� Given the relationship between human trafficking and economics, as long as services are in demand, human trafficking will exist to supply the demand� Research has been published addressing the need to better train police, to identify victims, as well as better implementation techniques to identify human trafficking activity� Moving forward the main goal should be focused on increasing awareness about the scope of the problem and developing effective strategies to fight this problem� While some governments and legal systems perceive prostitutes as conspirators, changing perceptions identifying these women as victims in the enterprise are emerging (Herzog, 2008)� Trafficking women for prostitution (TWP) should not be portrayed as an immigration issue; and instead increased attention is needed on increasing punishment seriousness for perpetrators who victimize women and children�
Introduction ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 162 Terrorism as an Act of Crime Based on Ideology ����������������������������������������������������������� 162 Challenges in Treating Bombing Victims ����������������������������������������������������������������������� 164 Strategic Role of Police in Transforming Victims into Champions ������������������������������ 164 Stage I: Physical Rehabilitation ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 166 Stage II: Psychosocial Rehabilitation ������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 167 Stage III: Harmonization Through Group Therapies and Dialogues ��������������������������� 168 Stage IV: Empowerment Programs ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 171 Stage V: Generating Change Agents �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 173 Conclusion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 174 Note ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 174 References ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 175
Abstract In the context where terrorism is viewed as an act of crime based on ideology, healing bombing victims using various components of society along with the support of police is critical� The approach is distinct from treatment of other crime victims� This chapter describes the strategic role of the police in transforming bombing victims into “champions” to build community resilience, based on the author’s best practice� The transformation process includes five key stages namely physical rehabilitation, psychosocial rehabilitation, harmonization through group therapies and dialogues, empowerment programs, and generating change agents to deliver anti-violence messages� In the process, a collaborative work among police, professionals, experts, civil society, and other proponents is necessary in order to prevent future reciprocal acts of violence in the community�
Many terror attacks, such as the Bali attacks, received massive international attention due to their impact on communities (Sukabdi, 2015)� In Indonesia, fatalities and wounded victims (e�g�, intense pain, burns on face and body, and disability) due to terrorist bomb attack affected more than 700 people (Adi Brata in Nasrul, 2014; Satrawi, 2016)� Many of the victims who survive bomb attack suffer permanent disability because of severe injuries, pain, trauma, and severe mental depression (Abas & Sukabdi, 2011)� Terrorist bomb attacks not only impact first-hand victims, but also their families (Abas & Sukabdi, 2011)� Widows as well as orphans suddenly emerged� Survivors and their families experience severe trauma due to terrorist bomb attack� There are those among them who also hold a sense of revenge toward the group performing terrorist bombing, and this can create new problems in society� Revenge will lead to counter-attack (time bomb), and will decrease harmony among classes or groups (Abas & Sukabdi, 2011)� This chapter describes the strategic role of the police in Indonesia in transforming bombing victims into “champions” to build community resilience� It is based on the author’s best practice in conducting treatment management for terrorism victims which involved Police Service officers. Moreover, as a psychologist in terrorism and radicalism, the author will describe the process of transforming bombing victims into “champions” by using psychological viewpoints�
Generally, the objectives of acts of terrorism can be divided into two, namely short-term objectives (e�g�, attracting attention, changing political views, and maintaining the continuity of their group) and long-term objectives (e�g�, establishing a state based on a certain religion, repelling invaders, and liberating the nation) (McCauley & Segal, 2009)� Kruglanski and Fishman (2009) suggest that a terrorism movement is not performed without planning� Psychologically, an act of terrorism by the perpetrator is an act which occurs from a decision that has been made from careful planning� The purpose is to spread fear in a population or certain religious believer, trusting that it will achieve certain goals� In this case, violence is chosen because there is no other alternative that can be taken to achieve the goal (Kruglanski & Fishman, 2009) and to offset a force of greater authority (Crenshaw, 2009)� Citations of several Islamic activists in Indonesia supporting the resistance against the Indonesian Government illustrate the issue, such as:
There are two ways, cooperative such as in parliament, government etc�, and non-cooperative such as by choosing not to cooperate and total rejection� Hence, we refuse to cooperate … We use the non-cooperative way … because what is true cannot be mixed with falsehood� (An Islamist militant in an interview)
We will certainly lose if we fight using other means such as war of ideas or war of culture� (An Islamist militant in an interview)
We do not agree on forming a party to be in parliament, they are all corrupted, even the Islamic party� We chose to fight it, not blend in it … We do not compromise with the current system, because it is so corrupted, we fight against it … Just give us a moment to rule the country, we assure you that Indonesia will then be excellent� (An Islamist militant in Putra & Sukabdi, 2013, p� 87)
Further, ideological terror actions can be seen as a form of reaction towards the perceived social situations, including relative deprivation (Love et al� & Post in Putra & Sukabdi, 2013; see also Gurr, 1970; Rose, 1982; Runciman, 1966; Walker & Smith, 2001)� The behavior of actors of extreme terrorism (such as killing innocent people or suicide) is usually followed by moral justification to legitimize their radical approach� Moral justification usually involves a collective ideology in the name of certain community or religious people (Kruglanski & Fishman, 2009)� Several moral justification used by terrorists can be in the form of fighting for independence from an oppression, fighting crime perpetrated by a certain state, serving God, etc� (Kruglanski & Fishman, 2009; Putra & Sukabdi, 2013)� The act of suicide by activists is defined as a struggle (jihad) of the highest value (Post, Sprinzak, & Denny, 2009; Putra & Sukabdi, 2013)� This action is also seen as a form of sacrifice to serve God (Putra & Sukabdi, 2013), thus it is not merely an act of suicide� This is illustrated from answers of Islamic activists from the Middle East in research conducted by Post et al� (2009) as follows:
This is not suicide� Suicide is selfish, it is weak, it is mentally disturbed� This is istishad [sacrifice for God]� (An Islamic activist, in Post et al�, 2009, p� 114)
A martyrdom operation is the highest level of jihad, and highlights the depth of our faith … the bombers are holy fighters who carry out one of the more important articles of faith … It is attacks when a member gives his life that earn the most respect and elevate the bombers to the highest possible level of martyrdom … I am not a murderer� A murderer is someone with a psychological problem; armed actions have a goal even if civilians are killed, it is not because we like it or are bloodthirsty� It is a fact of life in a people’s struggle the group does not do it because it wants to kill civilians, but because the jihad must go on� (An Islamic activist in Post et al�, 2009, p� 114)
The perpetrators of violent extremism may have been wrong in making the decision and setting up strategies, less appropriate in choosing alternative action to obtain their goals, or miscalculate when considering several consequences from their action hence resulting in collateral damage or bombing victims� However, bombing victims are a real concern and require resolutions of all society members including legal accountability from the perpetrators� Indonesia and various other countries view terrorism as an act of crime based on ideology (Sukabdi, 2015; see also Gunaratna & Rubin, 2011; Kruglanski, Gelfand, & Gunaratna, 2011; Rabasa, Pettyjohn, Ghez, & Boucek, 2010)� In the context where terrorism is viewed as an act of crime, legal investigation (legal processing) based on valid
evidence is critical� In the case of Indonesia that does not apply the Internal Security Act (ISA), law enforcement becomes the leading sector in handling terrorism and plays a major role in restoring community resilience�
From many angles, healing bombing victims to restore community resilience is not an easy matter (Abas & Sukabdi, 2011; Wongkaren, 2012)� In contrast to the handling of other crime victims, handling of bombing victims is tangent with efforts to answer why they become part of collateral damage by ideologue or by bombing actors who are highly respected (considered holy) and have a strong follower (Wongkaren, 2012)� Handling of bombing victims also relates with efforts to answer questions surrounding why they become the target of crime activities of this ideology, whereas many of these bombing victims are people who diligently perform religious ritual (Wongkaren, 2012)� Many bombing victims also blame the police as a representative of the government� This is due to the fact that an act of terrorism, including bombing actions, is considered by society and victims as a war between violent extremist groups and government as an authority that is considered responsible for creating injustice in economics and law (Wongkaren, 2012)� Police, in this case, become the scapegoat of society, and receive no sympathy from common civilians� In many cases where police become target of terror, people form a “numb” behavior where they show no attention, have a lack of empathy, or even tend to blame police as a state institution that causes all of these actions to occur in the first place (Wongkaren, 2012)� Another issue that is no less important is the many criticisms regarding handling of bombing victims such as inappropriate treatment (e�g�, lack of law that accommodates the recovery process of bombing victims) (Adi Brata in Nasrul, 2014; Satrawi, 2016) and the role of the police as protectors and guardians of the people (Wongkaren, 2012)� To restore community resilience, treatment of bombing victims must be planned, structured, and directed, because the victims bring a powerful voice to build an immune system against radicalism (Wongkaren, 2012)� They require assistance to receive encouragement and assistance (Wongkaren, 2012)� The nation is where they live and serve; hence they require proper protection and treatment (Wongkaren, 2012)�
The process of assisting bombing victims by all components of society including the police as protector and guardian of the people is aimed at transforming victims into “champions�” This is done in order to build high community resilience where all components of society are responsive and lend their hand in assisting crime victims� High community resilience results in society with a higher immune system hence victims do not have any implosive anger or revenge that can burst at any moment, conflict among groups, and vulnerability to provocation from any party� At the lowest or minimum level, intervention on bombing victims tries to rehabilitate them so they are able to heal physically and to move on mentally from the tragedy�
Rehabilitation tries to restore their condition so they continue to function socially (The National Anti-Terror Agency, 2013)� Furthermore, at the highest level, intervention of bombing victims tries to facilitate victims into becoming champions� As champions, not only did these bombing victims transform themselves into change agents for society, but they are also able to generate new change agents� In other words, at the level of champions, these bombing victims are actually performing “self-transcendence�” Maslow’s Model of Motivation (in Koltko-Rivera, 2006) explains that self-transcendence is the highest stage (sixth phase) after self-actualization as the fifth phase� To differentiate, in self-actualization, individuals explore their own potentials and contribute to others around them; whereas in self-transcendence, those individuals are able to inspire or influence other people to be able to actualize themselves or to be meaningful to their society� Both self-actualization and self-transcendence can be achieved when individuals have fulfilled their basic needs, such as psychological needs, safety needs, belonging needs, and esteem needs� Figure 11�1 illustrates the transformation process that occurs in bombing victims based on the author’s best practice in assisting them in Indonesia� During the Victim phase, which is right after the bombing occurred, bombing victims urgently require medical attention in the form of physical and psychosocial rehabilitation as they are in a state of shock and fragile condition� At this level, victims feel extremely helpless and in many cases they would rather die than live while suffering and being disabled for life� Proper treatment, namely first aid by police at the scene (e�g�, referring to the nearest ER, assurance, and medical aid by police doctor), physical rehabilitation, psychotherapy, counseling, and social support from various elements of society, can make bombing victims move from the Victim phase to the Survivor phase� The police, in this case, hold an important role because they are the first to recognize and find the victims at the scene of tragedy� During the Survivor phase, the victims have already reached emotional stability and, in many cases, are able to continue to work and function normally in society, they even create association or foundation to protect and watch over other bombing victims� They are also able to move on from the tragedy even if there are still issues lingering in themselves namely regarding who is the real actor behind the tragedy (“who?”), what is the motive (“why?”), and why they become part of the damage (“why me?”)� Counseling at this time is still needed� And when bombing victims are ready, they can enter group therapy programs where they can meet with the perpetrators or bombing actors so they can get answers to their questions� This is important in helping victims move on holistically� The meeting process is not easy; hence the role of police, psychologists, and civil society (also known as non-government organizations) is extremely important in managing it� Once again, the police play a strategic role in assuring the smoothness of the process� This process will be explained in greater detail in the Harmonization/ Reconciliation stage�
As previously explained, in the Change Agent phase, bombing victims create a tremendous step by becoming educators or community-resource persons and by spreading the message of anti-violence to the community� At this level, assistance by police and civil society is required to ensure the safety of bombing victims in delivering their message� Moreover, the process cannot be forced� Based on the author’s psychological practices, out of the more than 700 bombing victims, only around 7% are in this phase (Adiartono & Soemarno, 2010)� Lastly, in the Champion phase, victims show their maximum ability by producing new change agents in various events or forums organized by their foundation or association� There are five key stages of treatments in transforming victims into champions� Figure 11�2 explains in general treatments for bombing victims� The police hold a strategic role as protectors and guardians of the people in conjunction with civil society to restore community resilience� When bombing victims achieve their maximum, which is the level of “Champion,” the community develops a “new vaccine” where the majority of people that used to be silent are becoming anti-violence due to the powerful voice of victims in raising people’s alertness of the danger of radicalism and violent extremism�
The first stage is the most critical condition which includes physical medicine and rehabilitation� During the incidence the police hold a fundamental role in helping bombing victims� The police need to quarantine the scene and provide first aid to bombing victims inflicted by immediate physical and psychological impacts of the blasts, by referring them
to the nearest emergency unit, providing police doctors, and contacting other doctors from hospitals around the city� The damage level of bombing victims varies, from severe to minor, thus the national police need to work closely with hospitals, physical rehabilitation centers, and government entities which deal with medical-expenses support for bombing victims� Referral or recommendation from the police can expedite the first treatment of bombing victims� Philosophically, rehabilitation is an attempt to restore to the previous condition (victim’s recovery) in order to restore normal function� Amputations, skin grafts, and various other types of surgeries are included in this stage� Furthermore, treatment can be in the form of physical therapy sessions� A team of professionals such as doctors, psychologists, physical therapists, and occupational therapists is needed immensely at this stage� Physiotherapy programs and comprehensive rehabilitation processes can take months� During this process the police and civil society need to visit bombing victims, healthcare professionals, and staff at the hospital where bombing victims are treated in order to observe and to see first-hand the healing environment experienced by bombing victims� Visits and motivation by the police create a sense of security and peace for victims, hence preventing crime or acts of revenge from the victims’ families toward the perpetrators in the future�
At this stage, effective counseling or psychotherapy is applied� By definition, it is
a process that involved a trained professional who abided by accepted ethical guidelines and has skills and competencies for working with diverse individuals who are in distress or have life problems that led them to seek help (possibly at the insistence of others) or they may be choosing to seek personal growth, but either way, these parties establish an explicit agreement (informed consent) to work together (more or less collaboratively) toward mutually agreed on or acceptable goals using theoretically-based or evidence-based procedures that, in the broadest sense have been shown to facilitate human development or effectively reduce disturbing symptoms� (Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2012, p� 9)
This process can be in the form of conversations, dialogues, interactions, friendship, motivations, and assistance which support the mental aspect of bombing victims so they can deal with their feelings, thoughts, or behaviors� The goal of this stage is to heal the trauma, work with adjustment problems, provide understanding, and restore the victims’ psychosocial condition as much as possible to their original condition prior to the bombing disaster or tragedy� This process is very critical and difficult; hence it requires arts and collaboration from several parties including the police� Generally, counseling and psychotherapy are qualitatively the same term� Both counselors and psychotherapists engage in the same behaviors with clients, such as listening, questioning, interpreting, and explaining, yet many do so in different proportions� Psychotherapy
is less directive, deeper, and longer, whereas counseling is slightly more directive and brief, more on developmentally normal but troubling issues, and focuses on practical problems (see Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2012)� In most cases, psychological advocacy, visitation, and motivation to bombing victims from several parties including the police, public figures, state leaders, and celebrities can expedite the recovery process of victims especially the shocks that they experienced, uncertain future, trauma, depression, and extremely low self-esteem derived from lifelong disability� For cases in Indonesia, police from the anti-terrorism special forces periodically provide assistance, visitation, and various supports to bombing victims so they feel secure and motivated to live�
Group therapies and dialogues that bring bombing victims and their families together with the actors is an extraordinary event� This process in conducted to holistically heal the feelings of bombing victims, namely by answering questions concerning “who,” “why,” and “why me�” Lifting the psychological burden/pressure or various questions that have been lingering within makes bombing victims feel calmer emotionally� This process is a reconciliation and peace building process� These statements by bombing victims in group therapy described their feelings:
At that time my head was bald … I have a wound from this part up to here … it was embarrassing, I used to be confident when meeting people, since this incident whenever I meet new people I become less confident … I am confused, why do they have to do this, what is their motivation, I have questions in my heart, I am confused� (A bombing victim, in Wongkaren, 2012, p� 153)
I … I only ask Sir, when this incident happened to me causing death to my husband, why did this happen to me, why me … (A bombing victim, in Wongkaren, 2012� p� 153)
This stage is critical, yet important to perform� Once bombing victims have made peace with what happened to them and directly witness the legal consequences experienced by the perpetrators, then they are able to completely move on, overcome extreme hatred within themselves, and minimize vengeance so that reciprocal acts of violence can be avoided� This can increase community resilience and prevent crime in the future� Furthermore, victims are not only those hit by the bomb during an act of terror� Victims can also be families of former inmates who get a bad stigma from society� In fact, victims can also be ex-perpetrators of terror that are affected by the brainwashing process conducted by several seniors in their group� Many of the perpetrators, due to their zeal for the sake of a particular ideology and idealism, fall into acts of violent extremism thus obtaining a stigma from society as a “terrorist” which in the end causes themselves to increasingly avoid blending in with the moderate mainstream society� This drastically impacts the life of their families� They have difficulty forgetting and to
move toward the betterment of themselves due to the bad stigma in society, thus this issue requires intervention� The following statements by former violent extremists in group therapy illustrate their thoughts and feelings:
I just realized that I and my friends had the wrong target back then� (A former terror perpetrator, in Wongkaren, 2012, p� 156)
I am confused, what was wrong with me, only enforcing Islamic shari’a, but how come I am labeled as radical, opposed by society� (A former terror perpetrator, in Wongkaren, 2012, p� 158)
Group therapy on both sides is an effort to self-heal and to raise insights on both sides� Those insights include the adverse effects of acts of terror and bombing, effects of stigma, to the effects of spiritual guidance or certain religious application that may require correction and adjustment according to the context� The insight theory was put forward by Kohler (1929), which states that learning experience can occur through “sudden comprehension” or “sudden insight” from observing and experiencing something� Significantly, insight cannot be observed by other people� Insight or enlightenment occurs personally and subjectively, and can only be felt by the individual� Even so, insight can sometimes be observed by other people� The following statement from a former violent extremist in group therapy describes this:
The turning point for me was when I met with the victims at University of Indonesia; there I realized that Indonesia is not a war state, but a peace state� (A former terror perpetrator, in Wongkaren, 2012, p� 156)
Group therapy where there is a meeting between families of bombing victims and former terrorist inmates is rarely found in many countries� Therapy in Indonesia which is advocated by police creates a significant effect on bombing victims� They become more self-confident, assertive, have understanding of what will happen, feel relieved that they know the perpetrators, their motive, and their background, and ready to face a better future� One of a bombing victim’s statements in group therapies was:
After listening to explanation from perpetrators of terrorism, there is a reduced burden in me … (A bombing victim, in Wongkaren, 2012, p� 155)
The process at this stage involves psychologists, police, religious leaders, academics of social issue, and therapists from civil society� Involvement of the victim protection agency is something that cannot be forgotten as part of the criminal justice system� This is to ensure that the legal rights of victims are not violated (e�g�, in the case of mass media presence)� Pre-activities include one week of preparation that includes two major issues namely to ensure participants will attend from both sides and to establish a conducive environment for the therapy process� Issues at this stage include safety, suspicion, awkwardness, or even tensions between the two sides at the beginning of the meeting, and information leaked to mass media�
Hence stringent security by the police (e�g�, inspection of items carried by participants) is critically needed� The presence of extreme emotion (e�g�, hysteria, anxiety) during this process is something that is avoided hence assessment from psychologists is required and only bombing victims with specific qualities can go through this level� In several cases at this stage, bombing victims can display negative emotions, such as scolding the perpetrators, complaining, crying, doubting the repentance of perpetrators, or even blaming the government, even though they are still showing normal and stable emotion� The statements of bombing victims to ex-perpetrators in group therapies are as follows:
I used to work as usual, like other people … when the bombing occurred, 80% of my body was burned, many of my bodily functions decreased, easily tired, if you can hear I’m gasping while talking as an effect from that … I also have nerve problems, it also affected my sight, you can see for yourself my current condition is like this, my arm is like this … I apply for work here and there also not accepted, I am considered physically disabled, it is difficult for me to find work� (A bombing victim, in Wongkaren, 2012, pp� 152-153)
Frankly I am not angry with you, I am angry at the government; if there is good governance this would not have happened … (A bombing victim, in Wongkaren, 2012, p� 154)
In many other cases, bombing victims show a big heart and forgive the perpetrators but on a note that they will never repeat the act� This creates a positive effect where the perpetrators deeply regret their action and in turn want to help the victims as a form of their responsibility and even foster good relationships with the victims� In group therapy bombing victims stated to ex-violent extremists:
Although I experience all of this, from the bottom of my heart I’ve sincerely let it go and forgiven� (A bombing victim, in Wongkaren, 2012, p� 154)
I have no revenge or anything, I only hope that it is not repeated again … I really have no hatred or anything� (A bombing victim, in Wongkaren, 2012, p� 154)
I am a mother of the victim, my child died after being hit by the bomb, at that time he was not supposed to be working, however he came because there is a meeting of mosque committee at his office, coincidently he is the head of the committee … I as the mother of the victim forgave the perpetrators … and please do not repeat this again … (A bombing victim in Wongkaren, 2012, p� 154)
Furthermore, former violent extremists stated to bombing victims in group therapy:
Sir, if I experienced what you went through, I will also be very angry, really, it is incredible your struggle and what you experience … (A former terror perpetrator, in Wongkaren, 2012, p� 156)
Sir, may I be allowed to visit your home? If so, I would like to apologize to your family� (A former terror perpetrator, in Wongkaren, 2012, p� 158)
This stage can also build awareness of the fatality caused by acts of violent extremism, thus increasing the immune system of society� The ultimate result of this stage is when the two sides, both victims and ex-prisoners, reach a written agreement to oppose acts of violence� Although many ex-offenders of violent extremism cases are still not involved in this activity (because they are still in prison or still out of reach from the police), it can bring insights for all parties involved� Ex-prisoners that attend as participants of dialogues and group therapies can become change agents toward their compatriots so that the life of the society is positive and progressive� In group therapy former violent extremists stated:
Actually we the Islamic fighters only want to defend our brothers everywhere that are being oppressed … but how come our compatriots misdirected the target … (A former terror perpetrator, in Wongkaren, 2012, p� 157)
Sir, we are fighters, if anything in this poor country that attack you and all of us, we will rise and defend you, do not worry Sir … we apologize for what our compatriots have done, it breaks my heart to see, your condition … do not worry Sir� (A former terror perpetrator, in Wongkaren, 2012, p� 158)
Sir, incredible Sir, what you experience is really difficult … are you now able to work routinely Sir? (A former terror perpetrator, in Wongkaren, 2012, p� 156)
I, representing the perpetrators, utter remorse and apology … we err … I feel sad and touched by what the victims experienced … (A former terror perpetrator, in Wongkaren, 2012, pp� 158-159)
In general, this activity is a proper learning facility for both ex-prisoners, the bombing victims and their families, practitioners in the field of violent extremism (psychologists, religious experts, experts in humanities, and academics), as well as the government to build community resilience�
Empowerment programs allow bombing victims to actualize themselves and to explore their own potential� The empowerment programs include vocational, humanitarian, educational, and social re-integration programs, even politics� Several bombing victims are getting involved in politics to change the laws and regulations concerning counter-terrorism efforts and handling of bombing victims� There are also bombing victims who become extension workers and speakers in educational and counter-narrative programs for the public� The goal is to maximize their potential, to promote the anti-violence campaign, and to endorse some changes in laws and regulations in order to prevent crime and improve community
resilience� Thus, they become change agents in society� As Havelock (1970) states, a successful change agent has the characteristics of positive attitudes, adequate understanding or knowledge, and specific skills in forming a collaboration and preserving peace� Empowerment programs need to be protected by the police as law enforcement� In addition, bombing victims also need to be accompanied by the victim protection agency� This is because in many extension programs, the victims are partnered with or collaborate with ex-perpetrators and their families, hence the agency needs to make sure that the process is productive and support the victims’ development to become “champions�” The lack of accompaniment of bombing victims in several counseling programs which involve collaborative work with ex-perpetrators and many parties will possibly lead to vulnerability of victims toward a subtle form of exploitation� In contrast, a productive program that is well organized can amplify the effect of the program because these bombing victims bring with them a powerful voice of the anti-violence movement or spirit in society� Figure 11�3 describes an empowerment program model in counter-narrative to improve community resilience and to prevent crimes� In this figure, victims collaborate with ex-perpetrators to produce anti-violence messages� Organizers of the empowerment program can come from government, private sectors, or civil society� Good collaboration
produces a quality counter-narrative program that can increase the immune system of society from acts of violence and revenge, including violence on behalf of a certain ideology or belief� In this empowerment model, the police hold a strategic position as protectors and guardians of the program� The police hold a position that is deemed critical in providing security to the parties involved in the program� Drawing upon the “credible voices” of bombing victims and ex-perpetrators, a number of educational empowerment programs are aimed at youth in cities that are most vulnerable to violent extremism� In the programs, bombing victims as speakers draw upon first-hand narratives and explain the negative effects of violence� The audience can learn to avoid violence and provocations, and be empowered to make more positive, life-affirmative choices� An ideal program is one that utilizes venues where students learn or where youths or communities gather, such as high schools, universities, and youth clubs� Testimonials of bombing victims, their family members, and reformed perpetrators will be “credible voices” that provide a powerful and direct testimonial about the negative impacts of violence upon society� Periodic follow-up visits to select institutions during programs were held in order to reinforce the key message that violence is not a feasible choice and that students can make and have a better life choice by steering clear of violence� Periodic visits will over time serve to develop an ongoing relationship with school officials and students� Sustained engagement, without repetitive programming, is much more desirable, sustainable, and effective than a one-off program� At the end of the programs, the attitudes of youths or audience regarding the relative acceptability of violence will be measured� The programs are considered successful, if at the end of the program, there is a smaller percentage of the audience who still believe that violence is a legitimate expression of their grievances or to bring about change� In vocational areas, private sectors are able to assist in providing opportunities for bombing victims to work and stay productive in society� In this case, private sectors can provide business opportunities for bombing victims that have received recommendation from professionals that have handled and observed their progress� Proper protection of the rights of bombing victims known by the police increase trust and relationship between the community and police, and also shows good governance�
Treatment toward bombing victims reaches the pinnacle of success if they are able to become independent agents capable of creating new change agents or perform self-transcendence� In this case, they are able to become coaches or trainers who train prospective counselors or extension workers or speakers of anti-violence programs� In several cases, these bombing victim champions can even establish their own foundation where its management structure (e�g�, founder, chairman, and caretaker) is entirely comprised of victims of terrorism, therefore they are not relying on other people who are non-bombing victims to run the operation of the foundation� Several unique foundations, where the management structure is comprised entirely of bombing victims, are found in Indonesia� Among those foundations are ASKOBI and
Survivor Foundation� Founded in 2009, both foundations have more than 600 affiliate members (Adiartono & Soemarno, 2010; Hadisiswoyo, 2016)� The organizations are open to both Indonesians and foreign nationals who have been victimized by terrorist bombing in Indonesia, or who have family members who have been victims of terrorist attacks carried out in the country� All of these foundations have already partnered successfully with police and the National Anti-Terrorism Agency as well as ex-perpetrators� In addition to public outreach activities, this foundation also provides medical and economic support to victims of terror, including programs on economic empowerment and business development for victims of violent extremism� ASKOBI is successful in generating “change agent” students� These students continue to share with peers the message that violence is not a healthy or viable choice� ASKOBI’s programs in conducting the peace campaign also reach a progressive point due to assessments of their own programs, including pre-surveys of attitude of the audience towards the acceptability of violence and extremism and follow-on surveys which measure changes in the perceptions of the audience (youths)� In consultation with school officials, ASKOBI selects at least one “change agent” in each school who is identified based upon leadership potential and interest� In doing all its programs, ASKOBI performs collaborative works with the national police, clerics, or charismatic leaders, experts, researchers, other foundations, and academicians as partners or advisors�
In the context where terrorism is viewed as an act of crime, legal investigation based on valid evidence is critical� In this case, law enforcement as the leading sector in handling terrorism plays a major role in restoring community resilience� Further, the approach of healing bombing victims is unique and distinct from treatment of other crime victims� The strategic role of the police is crucial in transforming bombing victims into “champions” to build community resilience� This transformation process includes five key stages: physical rehabilitation, psychosocial rehabilitation, harmonization through group therapies and dialogues, empowerment programs, and generating change agents to deliver anti-violence messages� To conduct this process, a collaborative work among police, professionals, experts, civil society, and other proponents is necessary in order to prevent future reciprocal acts of violence in the community� Finally, future papers on how the Police Service protects its officers from secondary trauma or post-traumatic stress disorder as a result of working with bombing victims or perpetrators are relevant� For this, the self-care strategies supported by the police organization for its members are important in order to build personal resilience within police officers�
We must oppose those knowledge and power discourses that subordinate women everywhere throughout society.
