ABSTRACT
Of ce Buildings 1376 Building Conditioning Instruments 1376 Pressure and Flow Instruments 1378 Self-Heating Building 1378 CO2-Based Ventilation 1379 Elimination of Chimney Effects 1379
De nitions 1381 Abbreviations 1381 Organization 1382 Bibliography 1382
7.2 ELECTRIC ENERGY MANAGEMENT: DEMAND SHEDDING 1383
Introduction 1383 Load Shedding 1384
Peak Shedding Costs 1384 Electrical Demand 1384 Demand Shedding 1385 Demand Period 1385
Shedding Controls 1386 Electromechanical Devices 1386 Electronic Demand Limiters 1386 Digital Energy Management 1386
Conclusions 1387 Abbreviations 1388 Bibliography 1388
7.3 ELECTRIC METERS 1389
Introduction 1392 Analog Electric Meters 1392
Permanent Magnet, Moving Coil 1392 Moving Iron Vane 1393 Electrodynamic 1394 Electrostatic 1394
Digital Electric Meters 1395 Wattmeters 1396
Current Measurement 1397 AC Current 1397 Current Transformers 1397 Polarity and Inaccuracy 1398 Hall Effect Probes 1398 DC Current 1398 Ammeter Shunts 1399
Voltage Measurement 1399 AC Voltage 1399 Potential Transformers 1399 DC Voltage 1400
Wattmeters 1401 AC Wattmeters 1401 DC Wattmeters 1403
Meter Scales 1403 Advanced Designs 1403
Bidirectional Electric Meters 1403 Smart Meters 1403
De nitions 1404 Abbreviations 1405 Bibliography 1405
7.4 MACHINE VISION TECHNOLOGY 1406
Introduction 1406 System Components 1407
Linear Arrays 1408 Light Triangulation 1408
Line Scan Camera Application 1408 Two-Dimensional Arrays 1409
Analog Displays 1409 Serial Data Transmission 1410 Vector File Formats 1410 Bit-Mapped Images 1410
Computer Graphics and Machine Vision 1410 Conclusions 1410 Abbreviations 1411 Organization 1411 Bibliography 1411
7.5 METAL DETECTORS 1413
Introduction 1414 Detector Types 1414
Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO) 1414 Induction-Balanced Coils 1415 Pulse Induction 1415
Applications 1415 Very Low Frequency (VLF) Detector 1415 Pulse Induction (PI) detector 1415 Landmine Detectors 1416 Conveyor Belt Installations 1416 Other Applications 1417
Conclusions 1418 Abbreviations 1418 Bibliography 1418
7.6 NOISE SENSORS AND NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING 1419
Introduction 1420 De nition of Acoustic Noise 1420 Transducer Principles 1421
Inductive 1421 Moving Conductor 1421 Dynamic Microphones 1421
Capacitor Microphones 1421 Piezoelectric Microphones 1422
Nondestructive Testing 1422 Acoustic Emission Testing (AE) 1422
Microphone Types 1424 Ribbon 1424 Diaphragm 1424 Special 1424 Parabolic ReŽector 1424 Ultrasonic 1424
Microphone Selections 1425 Sensitivity and Direction 1425 Frequency and Amplitude Ranges 1426 Hydrophones 1426 Sound Level Meters 1426 Applications 1427 Calibration 1427
De nitions 1427 Abbreviations 1427 Organizations 1428 Standards 1428 Bibliography 1428
7.7 NUCLEAR REACTOR MEASUREMENTS 1429
Introduction 1429 The Process 1429
Safety Measurements 1430 Sensors and Measurements 1430
Sensors Unique to Nuclear Reactors 1431 Radiation Intensity and Dosage 1431 Radiation Exposure 1432 Radiation Monitoring 1432 Sensor Designs 1433
Reactor Power Measurement 1435 Fission Power Detection by Neutron Flux
Measurement 1435 Thermal Power Measurement and MUR 1437
Sensors Common to All Industries 1438 Flow Measurement 1438 Cooling Water Flow Meters 1439 Temperature, ΔT, Pressure, and
Moisture 1440 Conclusions 1441 De nitions 1441 Abbreviations 1442 Organizations 1442 Bibliography 1442
7.8 PIPE INTEGRITY GAUGES (PIGs) 1443
Introduction 1443 Pig Types 1444
Pipelining Safety 1445 Launching and Receiving Pigs 1446
PIG Passage Indicators 1447 PIG Designs 1447 Design Variations 1447 Plastic Pipelines 1448 PIG Location Detection 1448 Pipeline Leak Detection 1448
In-Line Inspection 1448 Intelligent PIGs 1449
Speed Control 1450 Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) 1450 MFL Sensors 1452 MFL Data Evaluation 1452 Ultrasonic Detectors 1452 New Sensor Designs 1453
Pigging the “Unpiggable” 1453 Conclusion 1454 De nitions 1455 Abbreviations 1456 Organization 1457 Bibliography 1457
7.9 POSITION MEASUREMENT, LINEAR AND ANGULAR 1458
Introduction 1459 Applications 1459 Mounting 1460
Sensor Types 1460 Potentiometric Sensors 1460 Linear Variable Differential
Transformers 1461 Inductive Linear Position Sensors 1462 Magnetostrictive Sensors 1462 Magnetoresistive Position Sensors 1463 Hall Effect Sensors 1463 Distributed Impedance Position Sensors 1465 Encoders 1465
Transmitter Technologies 1466 Analog Transmitters 1466 Fieldbus Transmitters 1467
Conclusions 1467 Positioners and Their Limitations 1467
Types of Positioners 1468 De nitions 1469 Abbreviations 1469 Bibliography 1470
7.10 PROXIMITY SENSORS AND LIMIT SWITCHES 1471
Introduction 1473 Proximity Sensors 1473
Capacitive 1473 Inductive 1474 Magnetic 1474 Hall Effect 1475 Linear Variable Differential
Transformer 1475 Limit Switches 1476
Mechanical 1476 Optical 1476 Light Sources 1477 Light Detectors 1477 Installation 1477 Pneumatic 1478 Ultrasonic 1479
Outputs and Encoders 1479 Selection 1480 Speci cation Forms 1480 De nitions 1483 Abbreviations 1483 Bibliography 1483
7.11 SOLAR COLLECTOR POSITIONING 1484
Solar Radiation 1484 Types of Solar Collectors 1484 Solar Angles 1485 Solar Trackers 1485
Passive and Active Trackers 1486 Mechanical Design 1486
Instrumentation 1486 Sun Position 1486 Elevation 1486 Limit Switches 1487 Temperature Sensors 1487 Weather Stations 1487
Control Systems 1487 Hardware 1487 Software 1488
Bibliography 1489
7.12 TACHOMETERS AND ANGULAR SPEED DETECTORS 1490
Introduction 1491 Tachometer Designs 1491
Mechanical and Handheld 1491 Contacting Impulse 1492
Rotary Encoders 1492 Optical Encoders 1493 Photoelectric Sensors 1493 Stroboscope 1493 AC Tachometers 1495 DC Tachometer 1495 Induction Sensors 1495 Magnetic Sensors 1496 Pneumatic Speed Transmitter 1496
Speed Switches 1497 Conclusions 1497 De nitions 1497 Abbreviation 1498 Bibliography 1498
7.13 THICKNESS AND DIMENSION MEASUREMENT 1499
Introduction 1500 Dimension Measurement 1500
Automated Gauging 1500 Thickness Detection 1501
Contacting Gauges 1501 Noncontacting Gauges 1503
De nitions 1506 Abbreviations 1507 Organization 1507 Bibliography 1507
7.14 TORQUE AND FORCE MEASUREMENT 1508
Introduction 1509 Force Measurement 1509
Measurement Principles 1509 Mechanical Dynamometers 1510
Torque Measurement 1513 Rotary Transducers 1514 Stationary Transducers 1516
Multiaxis Force Or Torque Sensors 1517
Testing 1518 Conclusions 1518 Speci cation Forms 1518 De nitions 1519 Abbreviation 1519 Organization 1519 Bibliography 1519
7.15 TRANSPORTATION RELATED SENSORS 1520
Introduction 1520 De nitions 1520 In-Road Sensors 1521
Inductive Loop 1521 Magnetometer (Fluxgate) 1524 Magnetometer (Induction) 1527
Off-Road Sensors 1528 Microwave 1528 Video 1530 Acoustic 1532 Ultrasonic 1533 Passive Infrared 1533 Active Infrared (and Laser) 1534 Bluetooth Wireless Sensors 1534
Summary 1535 Abbreviations 1536 Organizations 1536 Bibliography 1536
7.16 VIBRATION, SHOCK, AND ACCELERATION 1537
Introduction 1538 Kinematic Quantities 1539 Acceleration Measurement 1540
Installation and Mounting 1542 Vibration and Shock Measurement 1542
Periodic Vibrations 1542 Stationary Random Vibrations 1543 Nonstationary Random Vibrations 1543 Transients and Shocks 1543
Seismic (Inertial) Sensors 1543 Detector Designs 1544
Piezoelectric 1544 Piezoresistive 1546 Strain Gauge 1547 Electromechanical 1548 Coil and Magnetic 1548 Induction 1548 Electrostatic Force Feedback 1549 Capacitive 1550 Micro-and Nanosensor 1551 Optical Sensors 1552
Velocity Measurement 1552 Velocity Pickup Installation 1553
Proximity Sensors 1553 Mechanical-Magnetic Switches 1554 Conclusions 1554 De nitions 1554 Abbreviations 1555
Organizations 1555 Bibliography 1555
7.17 VISUAL INSPECTION TOOLS, BORESCOPES 1556
Introduction 1557 Rigid Borescopes 1558 Flexible Fiberscopes 1559
Articulation Controls 1560 Special-Purpose Systems 1560 De nitions 1561 Abbreviations 1561 Organizations 1561 Bibliography 1561
7.18 WEATHER STATIONS 1562
Introduction 1563 Insolation 1563
History of Insolation Measurement 1564 Multijunction Thermopile 1564 Pyranometers 1565 Pyrheliometers 1565
Wind Detectors 1566 Wind Direction 1566 Wind Speed 1566
Rain Gauges 1567 Pressure 1568
Barometers 1568 Altimeters 1568
Temperature 1568 Humidity 1569 Cloud Detectors, Ceilometers 1570 Meteorological Station 1570
Readouts 1571 Locations 1571 Shelters 1572
De nitions 1572 Abbreviations 1572 Organizations 1572 Bibliography 1572
7.19 WEIGHT DETECTORS LOAD CELLS 1574
Introduction 1576 The Selection Process 1577
Tension or Compression 1578 Ambient Temperature 1578 Lateral Restraints 1578
Vibration 1578 Number of Load Cells 1578 Capacity 1579 Electric or Hydraulic 1580 Class Options 1580
Installation 1580 Adapter 1581 Rocker Assembly 1582 Vessel Expansion 1582
Mechanical Lever Scales 1583 Balancing Devices 1583 Scale Ranges and Types 1584 Advantages and Limitations 1584
Hydraulic Load Cell Designs 1585 Rolling Diaphragm 1585 All Metal 1585 Hydraulic Totalizers 1586 Applications 1586
Pneumatic Load Cells 1586 Strain-Gauge Load Cells 1587
Operating Principle 1587 Design Variations 1588 Transducer Design 1590 Performance 1591
Other Load Cell Designs 1591 Semiconductor Type 1592 Nuclear Sensors 1592 Inductive Sensors 1592 Variable Reluctance Sensors 1593 Inductive and Reluctance Sensors 1594 Magnetostrictive Sensors 1594
Correction of Nonlinearity 1595 Housing and Safety 1595
Intrinsic Safety 1596 Special Applications 1596
High Temperature 1596 Weighing of Tank Legs 1596
New Load Cell Designs 1596 Thin-Film Strain Gauges 1597 Hydraulically Damped Design 1598
Smart Load Cells 1598 Interfacing 1598 Personal Computers 1599 Networks and Buses 1600
Calibration and Testing 1600 Aircraft Weighing 1601 Troubleshooting 1601 Speci cation Forms 1601 De nitions 1605 Abbreviations 1605 Organizations 1605 Bibliography 1605
7.20 WEIGHING SYSTEMS 1606
Introduction 1606 Gravity and Weight 1606
Force and Weight 1607 History 1607 Mass vs. Volumetric Measurements 1608 System Speci cation 1609
Weighing System Applications 1611 Bulk Weighing 1611 Weighing Platforms 1611
Weighing System Types 1614 Mechanical Lever Scales 1614 Spring Balance Scales 1614 Load Cell 1615
System Performance 1615 Temperature Effects 1615
Vibration Effects 1616 Ambient Condition Effects 1616
Installation and Stabilization 1616 Vessel Stabilization 1616 Stabilizing Devices 1616 Piping Connections 1618 Vertical Forces 1618 Spring Rates of Pipes 1619 Flexible Connections 1620
Calibration 1621 Maintenance Requirements 1622
Speci cation Form 1622 De nitions 1624 Abbreviations 1625 Organization 1625 Reading Material 1625
INTRODUCTION
The primary* energy consumption of private homes and of ce buildings is a large portion (around 40%) of the total American or European primary energy consumption (Figure 7.1a). For this reason, it is important to optimize its use. The quality and intelligence of the sensors used are key factors in achieving this optimization. The other key components in achieving this goal are the control strategies applied, including not only the use of renewable energy or the occupation-based considerations but also such larger factors as the elimination of chimney effects or the transporting of heat from the interior to the perimeter or between other areas.
