ABSTRACT
Extraordinary and far-reaching social changes took place in England during the course of the nineteenth century, changes unparalleled in the history of the country either before or since. A largely rural population in the mid-eighteenth century was overtaken by great urban conurbations in the next century. Millions had to adjust to town life, often in congested and insanitary conditions, particularly in the first half of the century. Both external and internal trade were affected, sometimes very badly, by the great wars of the eighteenth century, and especially by the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, 1793–1815. The role of the government in all these developments is interesting. As one might expect, its attitude to trade combinations or trade unions in the early nineteenth century was one of suspicion and hostility. Working-class self-help in the nineteenth century took a variety of forms, the vast majority being rooted in the simple human need to help one another in times of adversity.
