Skip to main content
Taylor & Francis Group Logo
Advanced Search

Click here to search books using title name,author name and keywords.

  • Login
  • Hi, User  
    • Your Account
    • Logout
Advanced Search

Click here to search books using title name,author name and keywords.

Breadcrumbs Section. Click here to navigate to respective pages.

Chapter

Wellbeing in El Alto, Bolivia

Chapter

Wellbeing in El Alto, Bolivia

DOI link for Wellbeing in El Alto, Bolivia

Wellbeing in El Alto, Bolivia book

Wellbeing in El Alto, Bolivia

DOI link for Wellbeing in El Alto, Bolivia

Wellbeing in El Alto, Bolivia book

BySara Fuller, Sarah Atkinson
BookWellbeing and Place

Click here to navigate to parent product.

Edition 1st Edition
First Published 2012
Imprint Routledge
Pages 14
eBook ISBN 9781315547534

ABSTRACT

In recent decades there has been an increasing worldwide interest in developing XQLYHUVDO GH¿QLWLRQV RI ZHOOEHLQJ LQ DFDGHPLF JRYHUQPHQWDO DQG QRQ JRYHUQPHQWDOFLUFOHV5HVHDUFKSURMHFWVDQGERRNVRQZHOOEHLQJKDYHPXOWLSOLHG LQWKHODVW\HDUVJRYHUQPHQWVKDYHDOVRIRFXVHGWKHLUSROLFLHVRQWKLVFRQFHSW RIWHQSURSRVLQJDXQLYHUVDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGGH¿QLWLRQRIWKHODWWHU7KHUHDUH GLIIHUHQWH[DPSOHVRIWKLVµZHOOEHLQJ¶SROLF\VKLIWIRULQVWDQFHLQWKH.LQJGRP RI %KXWDQ ZLWK LWV JURVV QDWLRQDO KDSSLQHVV LQGLFDWRU DQG UHFHQWO\ LQ (YR 0RUDOHV¶%ROLYLD

'XULQJ WKH ODVW GHFDGH%ROLYLD KDVZLWQHVVHG LPSRUWDQW SROLWLFDO FKDQJHV A new constitution was approved in 2009 – Constitución Política del Estado – ZKLFKSODFHGLPSRUWDQFHRQSROLWLFDOGLVFRXUVHDERXW LQGLJHQRXVDQGQDWLRQDO ZHOOEHLQJ GH¿QHG DV µ6XPD 4DPDxD¶ 7KLV FRQFHSW ZDV SURSRVHG E\ VRPH $\PDUD LQWHOOHFWXDOV DQG FRXOG EH WUDQVODWHG DV µbuen convivir¶ ± OLYLQJZHOO WRJHWKHU $OEy7KLV FRH[LVWHQFH LPSOLHVKDUPRQLRXV UHODWLRQVKLSVQRW RQO\EHWZHHQKXPDQEHLQJVEXWDOVREHWZHHQKXPDQEHLQJVDQGQDWXUH([SORULQJ WKHFRQFHSWRISuma QamañaLVDKLJKO\UHOHYDQWWRSLFIRUDFDGHPLFHQJDJHPHQW DW WKLVPRPHQW ERWK DV RQH RI WKH SULRULWLHV RI WKH0RUDOHV JRYHUQPHQW DQG DVDQDOWHUQDWLYHLPDJHRILQGLJHQHLW\,QSDUWLFXODUVXFKH[SORUDWLRQQHHGVWR FULWLFDOO\H[DPLQHWKHOLPLWDWLRQVRIWKLVSROLWLFDOGLVFRXUVHE\GLVWLQJXLVKLQJLW IURPWKHRULJLQDOPHDQLQJVRIWKHWHUPDVURRWHGLQSHRSOH¶VHYHU\GD\SUDFWLFHV EHOLHIVDQGFXOWXUH

7KLV FKDSWHU GHVFULEHV DQG LQWHUURJDWHV WKH FRQFHSW RI µWKH JRRG OLIH¶ DV SUDFWLFHG DQG DUWLFXODWHG E\$\PDUD LQIRUPDQWV LQ WKH FLW\ RI (O $OWR 7KH GDWD DUH GUDZQ IURP HWKQRJUDSKLF UHVHDUFK FRQGXFWHG ZKLOVW OLYLQJ LQ WZR GLIIHUHQWQHLJKERXUKRRGVRI WKLVFLW\$PDFKXPDDQG6HQNDWDZKLFKHQDEOHG WKH LQFOXVLRQRI DYDULHW\RISHUVSHFWLYHV ,QSDUWLFXODU UHVHDUFK LQ WKHVH WZR GLIIHUHQWQHLJKERXUKRRGVDIIRUGVDSHUVSHFWLYH WKDWTXDOL¿HV WKH WHUPµXUEDQ¶ ,QWKLVFKDSWHU,PDNHWKHFDVHWKDW(O$OWRLVDQH[FHOOHQW¿HOGVLWHLQZKLFK WR LQYHVWLJDWH WKH FRPSOH[LW\ RI LVVXHV WKDW HPHUJH ZKHQ FRQVLGHULQJ WKH UHODWLRQVKLSVRIZHOOEHLQJDQGSODFH,Q%ROLYLDWKH:HVWHUQDQG(DVWHUQSDUWVRI WKHFRXQWU\GLYHUJHIURPRQHDQRWKHUMXVWDVWKHFLW\GRHVIURPWKHFRXQWU\VLGH DQG WKHPRXQWDLQV IURP WKH WURSLFDO UHJLRQV7KHVH SODFHV GLIIHU QRW RQO\ LQ WHUPV RI WKHLU HFRORJLFDO VSDFH EXW DOVR LQ WHUPV RI WKHLU VRFLDO DQG FXOWXUDO ODQGVFDSHVWKHVSDFHVRIFROOHFWLYHPHDQLQJV

0\ LQWHUHVW LQ WKH WRSLFZDV VWLPXODWHG E\ WKH LQFUHDVLQJ LQWHUHVW DPRQJVW ORFDOLQWHOOHFWXDOVLQLQYHVWLJDWLQJZHOOEHLQJIURPDQµLQGLJHQRXV¶SRLQWRIYLHZ ,QWKHODVWGHFDGHWKHUHKDVEHHQDQDWWHPSWRQWKHLUSDUWWRYHUEDOL]HDµFROOHFWLYH¶ FRQFHSW IRU WKH LQGLJHQRXV µFRPPXQLW\¶ ,QWHUHVWLQJO\ WKHLU YLHZ GHSLFWV µLQGLJHQRXV¶SHRSOHDVDYHUVLRQRI5RXVVHDX¶VµQREOHVDYDJH¶WKHFRXQWU\VLGHLV LGHDOL]HGLQRSSRVLWLRQWRWKHFLW\DVWKHSODFHZKHUHµWKHRULJLQDOFRPPXQLW\¶DQG KDUPRQLRXVVRFLDOUHODWLRQVDUHGHVWUR\HG

'HVSLWHWKHVXSSRUWRIP\LQIRUPDQWVWRWKLVLGHDOL]HGGHSLFWLRQP\HWKQRJUDSKLF ZRUNLQWKHFLW\RI(O$OWRLQVKRZVKRZWKHUHDUHFRQWUDGLFWLRQVWKDWHPHUJH IURPHYHU\GD\OLIHZKLFKLQÀXHQFHP\LQIRUPDQWV¶SUDFWLFHV7KHFRQFHSWRIµWKH JRRGOLIH¶DVWKHRUL]HGE\ORFDOLQWHOOHFWXDOVLVDQLGHDO0\LQIRUPDQWVNQRZZKDW Suma QamañaPHDQVEXWXVXDOO\GRQRWXVHWKHWHUPLQHYHU\GD\OLIH,KHDUGORFDO OHDGHUVXVLQJLWLQSROLWLFDOVSHHFKHVWRLQYRNHWKHXQLW\RIDOOWKHUHVLGHQWVSuma QamañaLVLGHQWL¿HGE\P\LQIRUPDQWVDVµbienestar¶ZHOOEHLQJRUµWKHJRRGOLIH¶ DWWKHFRPPXQLW\OHYHO±EXWDOVRDVµpermanecer¶±WRVWD\DQGWRUHPDLQ0DQ\ FRQYH\HGWRPHWKDWWKLVLGHDOFRQFHSWLVGLI¿FXOWWRDFKLHYHLQYROYLQJSROLWLFDO DQGHFRQRPLFDVSHFWVLQWKHFLW\DVZHOODVLQWKHFRXQWU\VLGH

2QWKHRWKHUKDQGORFDOLQWHOOHFWXDOVHPSKDVL]HWKHH[LVWHQFHRIDQRSSRVLWLRQ EHWZHHQWKHUXUDODQGXUEDQVSDFHFODLPLQJWKDWµFRPPXQLW\¶GRHVQRWH[LVWLQWKH FLW\EHFDXVHRI WKHGHFOLQHRIKLVWRULFDOIRUPVRIFRRSHUDWLYH ODERXU+RZHYHU OLWWOHDWWHQWLRQLVJLYHQE\ORFDOLQWHOOHFWXDOVWRRWKHUFRPPXQDOLQVWLWXWLRQVLQWKH XUEDQFRQWH[WWKDWKDYHUHSODFHGRUDWOHDVWFRPSHQVDWHGIRUUXUDORUJDQL]DWLRQV 7KHJunta Vecinal and Junta EscolarDUHIXQGDPHQWDOXUEDQLQVWLWXWLRQVWKHIRUPHU LVWKHORFDOUHVLGHQWV¶FRPPLWWHHZKLOHWKHODWWHULVWKHRUJDQLVDWLRQDOFRPPLWWHH IRUDVFKRRODQGXVXDOO\ERWKWKHVHLQVWLWXWLRQV¿JKWIRUWKHµVHOIFRQVWUXFWLRQ¶RI WKHDUHD/D]DU&RWWOHDQG5XL]8UWRQ

7KHDLPRIWKHFKDSWHULVWKHUHIRUHWRVKHGOLJKWRQKRZSODFHLVV\PEROLFDOO\ FRQVWUXFWHG LQ UHODWLRQ ZLWK ZHOOEHLQJ DQG KRZ µWKH JRRG OLIH¶ DVVXPHV GLIIHUHQW IRUPV HYHQZLWKLQ WKH VDPH FLW\ 7KH QH[W VHFWLRQ SURYLGHV D EULHI JHQHUDOEDFNJURXQGRIWKH%ROLYLDQKLJKODQGV6XEVHTXHQWVHFWLRQVGHYHORSWKH DUJXPHQW WKURXJK WKH FDVH VWXG\PDWHULDO RQ (O$OWR WKH QHLJKERXUKRRGV RI 6HQNDWDDQG$PDFKXPD

Living in the Highlands

6RPHPLJKWDUJXHWKDWDEHDXW\SDJHDQWFRQWHVWDQWLVQRWDJRRGUHSUHVHQWDWLYH RISXEOLFRSLQLRQ+RZHYHU*DEULHOD2YLHGRPDGHH[SOLFLWWKHWHQVLRQVH[LVWLQJ EHWZHHQGLIIHUHQWUHJLRQVDQGH[SUHVVHGWKHFXOWXUDODQGJHRJUDSKLFDOGLYHUVLW\RI KHUFRXQWU\%ROLYLDLVGLYLGHGLQWRQLQHDGPLQLVWUDWLYHGHSDUWPHQWV7KHWURSLFDO ORZODQGVLQWKHHDVWDUHLQVWDUNSK\VLFDOFRQWUDVWWRWKH:HVWHUQ$QGHDQSODWHDX DQGSHDNVRUKLJKODQGVDQGLQWKHFHQWUHWKHUHDUHJUHHQYDOOH\V7KHVHFRQWUDVWV LQWKHODQGVFDSHDUHHFKRHGE\FXOWXUDOGLIIHUHQFHVWKHUHDUHHWKQLFJURXSVWKDW DUHRI¿FLDOO\ UHFRJQL]HG4XHFKXD DQG$\PDUD DUH WKH ODUJHU ODQJXDJHJURXSV DOWKRXJK LW LV TXHVWLRQDEOH KRZ IDU OLQJXLVWLF PDUNHUV UHSUHVHQW LQ WKHPVHOYHV GLVWLQFWLYHDQGLGHQWL¿DEOHHWKQLFDI¿OLDWLRQV

*DEULHOD2YLHGR¶VZRUGVVXJJHVWWKDWWKH%ROLYLDQQDWLRQDOERG\LVFKDUDFWHUL]HG E\GLVFULPLQDWLRQDQGPLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJEHWZHHQGLIIHUHQWUHJLRQVZKLFKDUHDOVR DVVRFLDWHGZLWKGLIIHUHQWVRFLDOFODVVHVDQGHWKQLFJURXSVRULQKHUZRUGVµSRRU¶ DQGµLQGLJHQRXV¶0LVV%ROLYLDLVIURPWKHFLW\RI6DQWD&UX]ZKLFKKDVKDG DQHFRQRPLFERRPLQWKHODVWWZRGHFDGHV,WLVLQWKHULFKHVWUHJLRQRI%ROLYLD DQG LQ-XQH LWDWWUDFWHGPHGLDDWWHQWLRQEHFDXVHRI UDFLVWDWWDFNV WRZDUGV LQGLJHQRXVPLJUDQWVIURPWKHKLJKODQGVZKRKDGPRYHGWRWKHORZODQGVWRZRUN LQIDFWRULHV7KHXVHRIWKHWHUPindios – which carries derogatory connotations ±DOVR LPSOLHV WKDW WKH LPDJHRI/D3D] DQG LQJHQHUDO RI WKH:HVWHUQSDUW RI WKHFRXQWU\DQGWKH$QGHVLVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKDQLGHDRIEDFNZDUGQHVVDQGUDFLDO LQIHULRULW\DQGWKDWWKHVHDUHGLVFXUVLYHO\OLQNHG

0\VWRU\LVDQµ$QGHDQWDOH¶WKDWWRRNSODFHDWDQDOWLWXGHRIPHWUHVRQ DGU\SODWHDXVXUURXQGHGE\VQRZSHDNHGPRXQWDLQVDKDUVKUHJLRQWKDWIDUPHUV KDYHFXOWLYDWHGIRUPLOOHQQLDDQGZKHUHDQLPSRVLQJQHZFLW\LVJURZLQJWRGD\ 7KLVLV(O$OWRSRSXODWHGODUJHO\E\$\PDUDPLJUDQWVIURPWKHFRXQWU\VLGHDQG WKXV WKH µPRVW$\PDUD¶ FLW\ RI%ROLYLD DQG WKHPRVW LQGLJHQRXV FLW\ RI /DWLQ $PHULFD8QWLOLWZDVSDUWRI/D3D]EXWVLQFHWKHQLWKDVEHHQDQLQGHSHQGHQW FLW\:LWKDSRSXODWLRQRIDOPRVWRQHPLOOLRQLQKDELWDQWVLWLVDKHFWLFKXEZLWK FRORXUIXOPDUNHWVZKHUH\RXFDQEX\XVHGDQGQHZJRRGVIURP&KLQDWKH8QLWHG 6WDWHVDQGRWKHU6RXWK$PHULFDQFRXQWULHV

$W WKH WLPHRIP\¿HOGZRUN LQ(O$OWRZDVRIWHQDVVRFLDWHGZLWK WKH GHPRQVWUDWLRQVDQG URDGEORFNV WKDWKDG WDNHQSODFHGXULQJ WKH ODVW\HDUV LQ %ROLYLD,WVJHRJUDSKLFDOSRVLWLRQPDNHVLWDVWUDWHJLFORFDWLRQ(O$OWRVXUURXQGV /D3D]ZKLFKLVSRVLWLRQHGPHWUHVORZHUGRZQLQDFDQ\RQ,W LVWKHUHIRUH WKH RQO\ DFFHVVLEOH URXWH IRU JRRGV DQG VXSSOLHV LQ DQG RXW RI WKH FDSLWDO DQG EORFNLQJ WKHPDLQ URDGV WKDW OLQN WKH WZR FLWLHV LQWHUUXSWV WKH HFRQRPLF ÀRZV LQWRWKHFDSLWDO+RZHYHU(O$OWR¶VUHSXWDWLRQRIFRPEDWLYHHQGXUDQFHLVQRWRQO\ IDYRXUHGE\ LWVJHRJUDSKLFDOSRVLWLRQEXWDOVRE\ WKHVRFLDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDQG FDSDFLW\RILWVLQKDELWDQWVWRRUJDQL]H

7KH ¿UVW WLPH , YLVLWHG %ROLYLD LQ , ZDV IDVFLQDWHG E\ WKH %ROLYLDQ KLJKODQGV7KH$QGHDQSODWHDXZLWKLWVRYHUVKDGRZLQJPRXQWDLQVLVDSODFHZKHUH

HDFKHOHPHQW LVEHOLHYHG WREHDOLYHDQG WRKDYHDVSLULW7KHVQRZSHDNVKDYH QDPHVDQGSHUVRQDOLWLHVWKHAchachilas±*RGPRXQWDLQV±DUHEHOLHYHGWRORYH DQGKDWHDVKXPDQEHLQJVGR7KH\DUHFRQVLGHUHGWREHDFWLYHPHPEHUVRIWKH FRPPXQLW\KROGLQJSRVLWLYHDQGQHJDWLYHIHHOLQJVDVZHOODVGHVLUHVDQGDSSHWLWHV 7KHHDUWKLWVHOI±Pachamama±LVDOLYHDQGKDVWREHFRQWLQXRXVO\IHGVRWKDWLQ WXUQLWFDQIHHGKXPDQEHLQJV

/LIHRQWKHSODWHDXLVUHJXODWHGE\WKHF\FOHRIDJULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWLRQFDWWOH EUHHGLQJVKHHSIDUPLQJDQGWKHH[FKDQJHRISURGXFWVLQWKHPDUNHW)LHVWDVDUH QXPHURXVWKURXJKRXWWKH\HDU7KH\LQGLFDWHWKHSDVVLQJRIWLPHDQGWKHFHOHEUDWLRQV IRUWKHKDUYHVW7KHODQGVFDSHRIWKHÀDWSODWHDXLVVXGGHQO\LQWHUUXSWHGE\WKHUHG EULFNKRXVHVRIWKHFLW\RI(O$OWR,QWKHODVW\HDUV(O$OWRKDVEHFRPHWKHPRVW DWWUDFWLYHGHVWLQDWLRQIRUUXUDOPLJUDQWV0DQ\KDYHOHIWWKHFRXQWU\VLGHLQVHDUFK RI DEHWWHU OLIHEHFDXVHDJULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWLRQZDV WRR VFDUFH WR VXSSRUW WKHLU IDPLOLHVRUEHFDXVHWKH\IHOWDWWUDFWHGWRZDUGVWKLVODUJHDQWKLOORIEXLOGLQJVDQG SHRSOH)RUVXFKPLJUDQWV(O$OWRLVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKEHWWHUZRUNDQGHGXFDWLRQ RSSRUWXQLWLHV7KLVLVHVSHFLDOO\WUXHIRU\RXQJSHRSOHZKRPDNHXSWKHPDMRULW\ RIWKHSRSXODWLRQ(O$OWRFDQLQGHHGEHVHHQDVDFLW\FKDUDFWHUL]HGE\DVWURQJ SUHVHQFHRI\RXWKDQGDYLEUDQW\RXWKFXOWXUH,WKDVDOVRDVVXPHGDQLPDJHDVWKH µFLW\RIWKHIXWXUH¶RUµciudad esperanza¶FLW\RIKRSHDVPDQ\LQKDELWDQWVDQG UXUDOPLJUDQWVOLNHWRGH¿QHLW1HYHUWKHOHVVWKLVYLHZLVQRWVKDUHGE\HYHU\RQH ,WLVTXLWHFRPPRQWRKHDUSHRSOHLQ/D3D]VD\WKDW(O$OWRLVDSRRUVKDQW\WRZQ that should be avoided, picturing all alteñosDVµSRRULQGLJHQRXVFULPLQDOV¶

A Brief History of Urban Space in El Alto: Migration, Marginality and Identity

(O$OWR¶VKLVWRU\PLUURUVDQGLOOXVWUDWHVZRUOGWUHQGV,QRQO\SHUFHQW RIWKHPLOOLRQSHRSOHLQWKHZRUOGOLYHGLQFLWLHVRIRURYHU+DXVHU DQG6FKQRUH,QWKHODVW\HDUVWKLVKDVFKDQJHGUDGLFDOO\,QWKHJOREDO VRXWKPDQ\FLWLHVDUHJURZLQJDWUDWHVVRKLJKWKDWWKH\GRXEOHWKHLUSRSXODWLRQV HYHU\ WR\HDUV7KLV FRQVWLWXWHVRQHRI WKHPRVW LPSRUWDQWPLJUDWLRQV LQ KXPDQKLVWRU\FUHDWLQJµRYHUXUEDQL]DWLRQ¶RUµK\SHUXUEDQL]DWLRQ¶3HUOPDQ &RPSDUDWLYHSRYHUW\LQUXUDODUHDVLVDFUXFLDOIDFWRUVXSSRUWLQJWKHµSXVK¶WKHRU\ RIPLJUDWLRQ WKDW IRFXVHVRQ WKHGLI¿FXOW FRQGLWLRQV LQ WKH FRXQWU\VLGH DQG WKH FKDQJHVLQDJULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWLRQVXFKDVODFNRIJRRGODQGRUDORZSURGXFWLYLW\ *RUGRQDYD&RUWHV

+RZHYHUZKHQWKHcampesinosSHDVDQWVPLJUDWHIURPWKHLUpueblos (villages) WR(O$OWRWKH\GRVRIRUVHYHUDOUHDVRQV$OWKRXJKWKHUHDUHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQ the various provinces, campesinosJHQHUDOO\PLJUDWHEHFDXVHWKH\KRSHWRDFTXLUH DQHFRQRPLFVWDELOLW\WKDWGRHVQRWH[LVWLQWKHFRXQWU\VLGHDVPDQ\RIWKHPWROG PH%XWWKH\DOVRPLJUDWHEHFDXVHWKH\ZDQWWRMRLQRWKHUPHPEHUVRIWKHLUIDPLO\ ZKRSUHYLRXVO\PLJUDWHGRUIRUDFFHVVWRDEHWWHUHGXFDWLRQRUVRFLDOVWDWXV±DOO H[DPSOHVRIµSXOO¶IDFWRUV$OEyHWDO7KHVHHGXFDWLRQDODQGVRFLDODLPVDUH

DQLPSRUWDQWHOHPHQWLQDWWUDFWLRQWRZDUGVWKHFLW\DQG(O$OWRWKXVEHFRPHVµla ciudad prometida¶±µWKHSURPLVHGFLW\¶6DQGRYDOZKHUH$\PDUDPLJUDQWV FDQLPSURYHWKHLUTXDOLW\RIOLIHDQGFDQJLYHVKDSHWRWKHLUDVSLUDWLRQV

,QLWLDO SUREOHPV IDFHG E\ WKH PLJUDQWV UHODWH WR GLI¿FXOWLHV LQ ¿QGLQJ HPSOR\PHQWDQGDFFRPPRGDWLRQ HVSHFLDOO\ IRU WKRVHZLWKRXW IDPLO\PHPEHUV ZKRKDYHPLJUDWHGWRWKHFLW\EHIRUHWKHP$OEyHWDO<RXQJZRPHQ EHWZHHQDQG\HDUVROGXVXDOO\ZRUNDVGRPHVWLFVHUYDQWVLQWKHKRPHVRI IDPLOLHVLQ/D3D]2QWKHRWKHUKDQGROGHUZRPHQDUHPRVWOLNHO\WREHLQYROYHG LQPDUNHWDFWLYLWLHVDVcomiderasSUHSDULQJKRWIRRGDQGGULQNVLQWKHVWUHHWRU DVVWUHHWPDUNHWYHQGRUV

Migrants are seen as being between two worlds; this peculiar position has EHHQFODVVL¿HGDVµel mundo cholo¶ZKHUHcholoPHDQVDQ,QGLDQZKRKDVFRPH WROLYHLQWKHFLW\DQGLVVRPHZKHUHEHWZHHQEHLQJ,QGLDQDQGEHLQJmestizo,W LVERWKD UDFLDODQGD VRFLDOFDWHJRU\ VLJQL¿HGE\ LQGLJHQRXVSK\VLFDO IHDWXUHV FRPELQHG ZLWK SDUWLFXODU FORWKHV DQG HFRQRPLF DFWLYLWLHV LQ FRPPHUFH /D]DU +DUULV8VXDOO\WKHWHUPcholoLVFRXQWHUSRVHGWRWKHWHUPmestizo 7KH\ ERWK UHSUHVHQW LQWHUPHGLDU\ FDWHJRULHV EXW ZKLOH WKH IRUPHU LQGLFDWHV FORVHQHVVWRWKHLQGLJHQRXVVHWRIYDOXHVZRUNLQJDFWLYLWLHVDQGVRFLDOSRVLWLRQ WKHODWWHUXQGHUOLQHVWKHDGRSWLRQRIDVHWRIQRQLQGLJHQRXVYDOXHVDQGZRUNLQJ DFWLYLWLHV WRJHWKHUZLWK D KLJKHU VRFLDO VWDWXV:RPHQZRUNLQJ LQ WKHPDUNHWV DUH DOZD\V FODVVL¿HG DV cholas or cholitas DQG ZHDU D OD\HUHG JDWKHUHG VNLUW (polleraDVKDZOVSHFL¿FSXPSVIRU WKHLUIHHWDQGDERZOHUKDW6XFKZRPHQ UHIHU WR WKHPVHOYHV DV µmujeres de pollera¶ LQ FRQWUDVW WR µmujeres de vestido¶ WKDWLVZRPHQLQ:HVWHUQFORWKHV+RZHYHUWKHERXQGDULHVRIVRFLDOFDWHJRULHV DUHLPSRVVLEOHWRGH¿QHLQDQDEVROXWHZD\(WKQLFDVFULSWLRQPXVWEHYLHZHGDV VLWXDWLRQDODVDVRFLDOSURFHVVGHSHQGLQJLQSDUWRQFLUFXPVWDQFH7KXVHWKQLF WHUPVFKDQJHWKHLUPHDQLQJDFFRUGLQJWRVSHDNHUVDQGFRQWH[WDQGYDU\LQGLIIHUHQW SDUWVRI WKH$QGHV:HLVPDQWHO$V;DYLHU$OEyDUJXHV LWZRXOG EHPRUHDFFXUDWHWRGHVFULEHWKHSHRSOHRI(O$OWRDVXUEDQ$\PDUDDWHUPWKDW , SUHIHU+RZHYHU VRPHWLPHVHWKQLF WHUPVFDQQRWEH DYRLGHG HVSHFLDOO\ZKHQ DGRSWHGE\UHVHDUFKLQIRUPDQWV7KHLUXVHVKRZVQRWRQO\DVXEMHFWLYHGLPHQVLRQ WKDWFDQQRWEHJHQHUDOL]HGEXWDOVRPRUHFRPSOH[DQGFRQWH[WGHSHQGHQWHOHPHQWV WKDWÀDYRXUHWKQLFWHUPVZLWKGLIIHUHQWQXDQFHV

µ0LJUDWLRQ HPHUJHV DV D SURFHVV RI VHOIHPSRZHUPHQW RU ORVV RI SRZHU DQGSODFHVEHFRPHWKHV\PERORIHPERGLHGSKHQRPHQRORJ\RIVSDFHDQGWLPH¶ 1DSROLWDQR(O$OWR LVRQHRI WKRVHSODFHV:KLOVWRQ WKHRQHKDQG LW LV SLFWXUHG DV µla ciudad prometida¶ ± µWKH SURPLVHG FLW\¶ ± E\ LWV LQKDELWDQWV RQ WKH RWKHU KDQG LW LV GH¿QHG DV µFLXGDG HQ HPHUJHQFLD¶ ± µHPHUJHQF\ FLW\¶ $QWH]DQDE\WKHSHRSOHRI/D3D]$FFRUGLQJWRDGRFXPHQWSURGXFHGE\ WKHPXQLFLSDOLW\RI(O$OWRLQWKHPDMRUQHHGVRIWKHSRSXODWLRQUHODWHWRWKH ODFNRIEDVLFVHUYLFHVVXFKDVEDVLFVDQLWDWLRQSHUFHQWZLWKRXWDSSURSULDWH KRXVLQJ SHU FHQW KHDOWK SHU FHQW DQG HGXFDWLRQ SHU FHQW /D]DU (O$OWR LV DOVR D FLW\ FKDUDFWHUL]HGE\KLJK OHYHOV RI GRPHVWLF YLROHQFH

DQGJDQJSDUWLFLSDWLRQ &RWWOHDQG5Xt]5HYHOOR4XLURJD3pUH]GH &DVWDxRV

7KHGHSLFWLRQRI(O$OWR LQ WHUPVRIYLROHQFHDQGQHHGKDVEHHQFRUUHODWHG ZLWKLVVXHVRIHWKQLFLW\DVZHOODVVRFLDODQGFXOWXUDOIDFWRUVWKHPDMRULW\RIWKH PLJUDQWVDUH$\PDUD$OEyDQGDUHHPSOR\HGLQWKHLQIRUPDOVHFWRUZKLFK KDVH[SDQGHGVLQFHEHFDXVHRIK\SHULQÀDWLRQ$QWH]DQD7KHUHIRUH WKHLPDJHRI(O$OWRDVPLJUDQWDQG$\PDUDVLWVDORQJVLGHWKHLQIRUPDOLW\RIWKH HFRQRP\QRWRQO\LPSO\LQJWKDWWKHVHSUREOHPVDUHWKHLQKDELWDQWV¶RZQIDXOWEXW DOVRKLJKOLJKWLQJVWUXFWXUDOLVVXHVRIGLVFULPLQDWLRQDQGLQWHUQDOFRORQLDOLVP&RWWOH DQG5XL]/D]DU%\PRUHWKDQSHUFHQWRIWKHHFRQRPLFDOO\ DFWLYHSRSXODWLRQZDVZRUNLQJHLJKWRUPRUHKRXUVDGD\EXWHDUQLQJOHVVWKDQWKH PLQLPXPZDJH$PRQJWKRVHHPSOR\HGZRPHQ¶VSD\ZDVRQDYHUDJHSHU FHQWOHVVWKDQPHQ¶V'),'

1RQHWKHOHVV WKH LQIRUPDO VHFWRU UHSUHVHQWV D IXQGDPHQWDO LI QRW WKH RQO\ VRXUFHRIHPSOR\PHQWIRUWKHLQKDELWDQWVRI(O$OWR,QDQLQIRUPDOHFRQRP\LWLV TXLWHGLI¿FXOWWRFDOFXODWHWKHHDUQLQJVRIZRUNHUVLQWKHFDVHRIP\LQIRUPDQWV PRVWRIWKHPVDLGWKDWWKH\ZHUHHDUQLQJOHVVWKDQWKHPLQLPXPZDJH+RZHYHU WKHVHSHUFHSWLRQVDQGFRPPHQWVPD\EHFRQQHFWHGZLWKFXOWXUDOIDFWRUVVXFKDV WKHIHDURIFUHDWLQJMHDORXV\DPRQJQHLJKERXUVDQGFRQVHTXHQWFRQÀLFWZLWKWKH UHVWRIWKHFRPPXQLW\7KHUHIRUHZKLOHWKLVLQGLFDWRUPD\EHKHOSIXOIRUJHQHUDO GLVFXVVLRQV RQ WKH WRSLF RI SRYHUW\ LW LV GLI¿FXOW WR FDOFXODWH QRW RQO\ GXH WR WKHFRQGLWLRQVRIWKHLQIRUPDOHFRQRP\EXWDOVRIRUFXOWXUDOUHDVRQVZKLFKDIIHFW UHSRUWLQJRI HDUQLQJV0RUHRYHU HDUQLQJVPD\ DOVRÀXFWXDWH GHSHQGLQJRQ WKH YDULRXVPRPHQWVDQGZRUNRSSRUWXQLWLHV

3URVSHULQJ LQ %ROLYLD¶V LQIRUPDO VHFWRU KDV DOZD\V UHTXLUHG D KLJK GHJUHH RI ÀH[LELOLW\ GXH WRPDFURFRQVWUDLQWV VXFK DV FKDQJLQJ JRYHUQPHQWDO UHJLPHV DQGSHULRGLFPRQHWDU\FULVHVDVZHOODVPLFURFRQVWUDLQWVVXFKDVLOOQHVVDQGWKH FRQVHTXHQFHVRIODZVDQGWKHIW6R¿D9HODVTXH]D%ROLYLDQPDUNHWYHQGRUDQG WKHPDLQFKDUDFWHURI WKHERRNVE\+DQVDQG-XGLWK0DULD%XHFKOHUGHYHORSHG HI¿FLHQWDQGSRZHUIXOVWUDWHJLHV)RULQVWDQFHVKHWRRNDGYDQWDJHRILQWHUQDWLRQDO SULFH GLIIHUHQWLDOV DQG KHU FRQWDFWV HQDEOHG KHU WR REWDLQ VWDSOHV LQ SHULRGV RI VFDUFLW\0RUHRYHUVKHVXEVWLWXWHGWKHSURGXFWVVKHVROGZLWKRWKHULWHPVLQRUGHU WRFKDQJHXQIDYRXUDEOHFRQGLWLRQV1HYHUWKHOHVVLQVSLWHRIKHUWDOHQWVDVDWUDGHU VKHRIWHQIHOWYXOQHUDEOH7KHGHVSHUDWLRQZLWKZKLFKVKHUHDFWHGWRWKHWKHIWRI KHULWHPVZDVLQGLFDWLYHRIWKHLPSRUWDQFHDQGGLI¿FXOWLHVRIPDLQWDLQLQJZRUNLQJ FDSLWDO%XHFKOHUDQG%XHFKOHU

(O$OWR LV D FLW\ ZKHUHPDQ\ IRUHLJQ DQG QDWLRQDO HOHPHQWV DUH IXVHG DQG ORFDOO\UHFRQVWUXFWHG8QGHUVWDQGLQJalteñoLGHQWLW\PHDQVHQJDJLQJZLWKVWRULHV QRW RQO\ RI PLJUDWLRQ GLVSODFHPHQW DQG PDUJLQDOLW\ EXW DOVR RI H[SHFWDWLRQ KRSHVVRFLDODGYDQFHPHQWDQGUHWXUQ7KHFKRLFHRIP\WZR¿HOGVLWHV6HQNDWD DQG$PDFKXPDSURYLGHLPSRUWDQWH[DPSOHVRIWKHLQWULFDF\DQGFRPSOH[LW\RI DOOWKHVHLVVXHV

$PDFKXPDLVHVVHQWLDOO\DVXEXUERI(O$OWRDQGSHRSOHFRPPXWHGDLO\LQWR WKHFLW\WRZRUNUHWXUQLQJWRWKH]RQHDWQLJKW$OWKRXJKQRZDGD\VWKH\DUHDOVR

SDUW RI(O$OWRPXQLFLSDOLW\$PDFKXPD UHVLGHQWV OLNH WR GH¿QH WKHPVHOYHV DV µSHDVDQWV¶DQGVHHWKHLUDUHDDVµDYLOODJHLQWKHFRXQWU\VLGH¶,WLVLQWHUHVWLQJWR QRWLFHKRZWKH\LGHQWLI\WKHLUYDOXHVDVµUXUDO¶DQGGLVWLQFWIURPWKHXUEDQVSDFH IURPQHLJKERXUKRRGVVXFKDVQHDUE\6HQNDWD<HWDWVRPHSRLQWV$PDFKXPDDQG 6HQNDWDEHFRPHWKHVDPHZRUOGDZRUOGLQWKHSURFHVVRIIRUJLQJDQHZ$OWHxR LGHQWLW\7KHFRQVWUXFWLRQRI$PDFKXPD¶VµUXUDOQDWXUH¶E\LWVLQKDELWDQWVGHVSLWH WKHLU FRPPXWLQJ DFWLYLW\ DQG EHLQJ SDUW RI (O$OWRPXQLFLSDOLW\ LV VLJQL¿FDQW DQGGHPRQVWUDWHVWKHSRWHQWLDOIRULQWHOOHFWXDOLGHRORJLHVVXFKDVWKDWRI$\PDUD LQWHOOHFWXDOV WR LPSDFW RQ RUGLQDU\ SHRSOH 7KH IROORZLQJ VHFWLRQV GHVFULEH 6HQNDWDDQG$PDFKXPDIXUWKHULQRUGHUWRFRQYH\DQLPSUHVVLRQRIKRZWKH\ORRN DQGHYHU\GD\OLIHDQLPSUHVVLRQZKLFKLVIXQGDPHQWDOWRXQIROGLQJWKHFRPSOH[LW\ RILVVXHVHPHUJLQJZKHQHQJDJLQJZLWKZHOOEHLQJDQGSODFH

A Neighbourhood in the City: 25 de Julio, Senkata

SenkataZKLFKLQ4XHFKXDPHDQVQRVHLVDQHLJKERXUKRRGLQWKHVRXWKRIWKHFLW\ RI(O$OWR,WEHORQJVWR'LVWULFWDQGKDVDSSUR[LPDWHO\KRXVHKROGVDQG LQKDELWDQWVRUvecinosD6SDQLVKZRUGWKDWPHDQVUHVLGHQWDQGQHLJKERXU 7KHUHDUHGLIIHUHQWUHVLGHQWLDODUHDVLQ6HQNDWD,OLYHGLQGH-XOLRZKHUHWKHUH DUHDSSUR[LPDWHO\KRXVHKROGVDQGLQKDELWDQWV6HQNDWDLVGLYLGHGLQWZR E\WKHKLJKZD\WR2UXURDQGLWLVERUGHUHGWRWKHQRUWKE\(O.HQNR]RQHWRWKH VRXWKDQGZHVWE\3URYLQFLD,QJDYLDQGWRWKHHDVWE\$FKRFDOODPXQLFLSDOLW\7KH IRFDOSRLQWRIGH-XOLRLVWKHIRRWEDOO¿HOGDQGWKHPDUNHWSODFHRIWKH([WUDQFD 7KHPDLQSXEOLFEXLOGLQJVDUHRUJDQL]HGDURXQGWKH([WUDQFDWKHFKXUFKWKHORFDO UHVLGHQWV¶FRPPLWWHHFHQWUH WKH&ROHJLRGH-XOLRDQG WKHPDLQ ORFDOVKRSV 7KHVH DUH WKHPDLQSRLQWV RI GDLO\ LQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQGLIIHUHQW UHVLGHQWV7KH ([WUDQFDJHWVYHU\FURZGHGDQGEXV\RQ7KXUVGD\VDQG6XQGD\VZKHQWKHPDLQ PDUNHWWDNHVSODFH2QWKHKLJKZD\WR2UXURDWWKHOHYHORIWKH([WUDQFDWKHUHDUH SHUPDQHQWNLRVNVJURXSHGLQWRDVHOOHUV¶RUJDQL]DWLRQ

$FFRUGLQJWRVRPHLQIRUPDQWV6HQNDWDODQGEHORQJHGWRAchocalla hacienda ODQGHGHVWDWH$IWHUWKH$JUDULDQ5HIRUPLQWKHODQGZDVGLYLGHGDPRQJ WKHSHDVDQWVZKRZHUHDWWDFKHGWRWKHODQGRZQHU,QWKH¿UVWPLJUDQWVEHJDQ WKHLUVHWWOHPHQWVLQZKDWLVWRGD\6HQNDWD7KHQHLJKERXUKRRGRIGH-XOLR ZDV IRUPHG ODWHUDW WKHEHJLQQLQJRI WKHV6HQNDWD UHVLGHQWVDUH¿UVWDQG VHFRQGJHQHUDWLRQPLJUDQWVWKHPDMRULW\RIWKHPSHUFHQWKDYHFRPHIURP RWKHUDUHDVRI(O$OWRDQG/D3D]DQGSHUFHQWFRPHIURPWKHQHDUE\$URPD SURYLQFH2WKHUVFRPHIURPGLIIHUHQWSURYLQFHVVXFKDV3DFDMHV/RD\]D2UXUR ,QJDYLDQG,QTXLVLYL6HQNDWDUHVLGHQWVZRUNPRVWO\LQWKHLQIRUPDOVHFWRU7KH PRVWFRPPRQSURIHVVLRQVIRUPHQDUHWKRVHRIEXLOGHURUEXVGULYHU

6HQNDWDURDGVDUHXQSDYHGDQGYHU\GXVW\DSDUWIURPWKHKLJKZD\WKDWJRHVWR 2UXUR+RXVHVKDYHDFFHVVWRHOHFWULFLW\DQGZDWHUEXWVWLOOODFNDVHZDJHV\VWHP 7KHKRXVHVDUHSUHGRPLQDQWO\PDGHRIDGREHEULFNVZLWKFRUUXJDWHGLURQURRIV 7KH\FRQVLVWRIXSWRIRXURQHURRPEXLOGLQJVDUUDQJHGDURXQGDFRXUW\DUGZKHUH

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¶ FRPPLWWHH RU WKHJunta Escolar SDUHQWV¶ DVVRFLDWLRQPHHW8VXDOO\ DGXOWVDOVRPHHWXSLQWKHZHHNO\UHOLJLRXVVHUYLFHVRIWKHGLIIHUHQW&KXUFKHVVXFK as Asamblea de Dios de Bolivia, Iglesia Adventista del 7 Día, Nazareño Church, Iglesia Evangélica Presbiteriana, Iglesia Católica San Francisco de Assisi

Amachuma: ‘Rural’ El Alto

$PDFKXPDZDVSDUWRI$FKRFDOODPXQLFLSDOLW\XQWLO$XJXVWZKHQLWEHFDPH WKHWKGLVWULFWRI(O$OWRRU'LVWULWR5XUDO1~PHUR,WLVRQWKHURDGWKDWOHDGV WR2UXURPLQXWHVE\EXVIURP9HQWLOOD:KLOHLQWKHSDVWLWZDVDpueblo or YLOODJHQRZDGD\VLWLVRI¿FLDOO\SDUWRIWKHFLW\6XUURXQGHGE\¿HOGV$PDFKXPD KDVDµUXUDOVRXO¶WKLVLVHYLGHQWWKURXJKLWVLQKDELWDQWV¶GDLO\OLIHDVZHOODVWKURXJK WKHODQGVFDSH7KHKRXVHVDUHVFDWWHUHGLQWKHFRXQWU\VLGHQRWQHDWO\DUUDQJHGDV LQ6HQNDWD

7KH H[DPSOH RI$PDFKXPD DOVR VKRZV KRZ WKH FLW\ LV H[SDQGLQJ WRZDUGV WKHVXUURXQGLQJFRXQWU\VLGHDQG LOOXVWUDWHV WKHGLYHUVLW\RIalteñoFRQWH[WVDQG WKHPDQ\QXDQFHV WKDW IRUPDOWHxR LGHQWLW\ZKLFKFDQQRWEH WUHDWHGDVDVLQJOH LGHQWLW\EXWDVPDQ\DQGGHSHQGHQWRQWKHDUHDDQGLWVORFDOKLVWRU\&HQWUDO(O $OWRZKLFK WKHSHRSOHRI$PDFKXPDFDOO µ/D3D]¶ ORRNV OLNHDPLUDJH LQ WKH GHVHUWEXWLWVSUHVHQFHLVDOZD\VGRPLQDQW7RWKHVRXWKRIWKHVXEXUEWKHUHDUH RWKHUUXUDOFRPPXQLWLHVOLQNHGWR$PDFKXPDE\DYDOOH\DQGRYHUORRNHGE\WKH $QGHDQFKDLQLQFOXGLQJWKHVQRZSHDNRI0RXQW,OOLPDQL

7KHUHDUHLQKDELWDQWVOLYLQJLQWKHFRPPXQLW\DQGWKHLUPRWKHUWRQJXHLV $\PDUD,QVWLWXWR1DFLRQDOGH(VWDGtVWLFD7KHPDMRULW\RIWKHSRSXODWLRQ LV FKLOGUHQ DQG \HDUVROG DQG \RXQJ SHRSOH DQG \HDUVROG +RZHYHUZKHQ , UHIHU WR \RXQJ SHRSOH , LQFOXGH SHRSOH LQ WKHLU ODWH WZHQWLHV ZKRDUHXQPDUULHGDQGWKHUHIRUHVWLOOVHHQDV\RXQJHVSHFLDOO\LQ6HQNDWDZKHUH PDUULDJHQRUPDOO\WDNHVSODFHZKHQSHRSOHDUHLQWKHLUWZHQWLHV,Q$PDFKXPD \RXQJSHRSOHWHQGWRFRKDELWZLWKWKHLUSDUWQHUVRUJHWPDUULHGLQWKHLUWHHQ\HDUV EHFRPLQJDGXOWVHDUOLHU7KHUHDUHUHODWLYHO\IHZROGHUSHRSOHLQ$PDFKXPD

7KH PDLQ RFFXSDWLRQ RI $PDFKXPD LQKDELWDQWV LV DJULFXOWXUH /LYHVWRFN DUH DOVR DQRWKHU LPSRUWDQW UHVRXUFH LQFOXGLQJ FRZV VKHHS FKLFNHQ DQG D IHZ OODPDVDQGSLJV:RPHQXVXDOO\VHOOPLONDQGRWKHUDJULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWVVXFK

DVSRWDWRHVDQGDOIDOIDLQWKHPDUNHWVRI(O$OWR0HQXVXDOO\ZRUNDVPLQLEXV GULYHUV%RWKPHQDQGZRPHQDOVR HDUQPRQH\ IURPKDQGLFUDIWZRPHQPDNH wool gloves and tejidosZRYHQFORWKDQGPHQPDNHSRWWHU\WKHVHSURGXFWVDUH VROG LQ WKHPDUNHW7KHPDMRULW\ RI WKH KRXVHV DUHPDGH RIadobe and tapial PXGZLWKDQHDUWKÀRRUSDYHPHQWLQPRVWFDVHV2QO\LQDYHU\IHZFDVHVLVWKH ÀRRUPDGHIURPFHPHQWRUSDYHG

$PDFKXPDLQKDELWDQWVVSHDNDERXWWKHLUentornoHQYLURQPHQWDVVRPHWKLQJ WKDWLVYHU\LPSRUWDQWIRUWKHPDQGIHHOWKH\DUHLQFRQWDFWZLWKQDWXUHDQGZLWKWKH UHVWRIWKHFRPPXQLW\6ROLGDULW\DPRQJWKHPHPEHUVRIWKHFRPPXQLW\LVVHHQ DVYHU\LPSRUWDQWDQGPDQLIHVWWKURXJKWKHSUDFWLFHRI$\PDUDFRRSHUDWLYHZRUN such as ayni and mink’aAyniLVDUHFLSURFDODQGREOLJDWRU\VHUYLFHIRUH[DPSOH EHHUERXJKWIRUZHGGLQJVRURWKHUIHVWLYLWLHV/D]DU³7KHD\QLSULQFLSOHLV DVIROORZV,UHTXHVWDQGUHFHLYHDVSHFL¿FVHUYLFHIURPP\NLQVPDQRUQHLJKERXU RQWKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKDWRQDVXEVHTXHQWH[DFWO\VLPLODURFFDVLRQ,ZLOOUHQGHU KLPKHUH[DFWO\WKHVDPHVHUYLFH´+DUULVYL+RZHYHULQUHFHQW\HDUVayni DVVHUYLFHKDVORVWLWVLPSRUWDQFHEHFDXVHRIODFNRIWLPHQRZGHYRWHGWRDFWLYLWLHV LQRWKHUQHLJKERXUKRRGVRI(O$OWR<HWayniDVJLIWLQUHOLJLRXVIHVWLYLWLHVLVVWLOO SUDFWLVHG2QWKHRWKHUKDQGmink’aZKLFKGHVFULEHVFRPPXQDOZRUNWKDWLVQRW UHPXQHUDWHGDQGWDNHVSODFHLQSXEOLFVSDFHVVXFKDVSDYLQJWKHPDLQVTXDUHLV VWLOOTXLWHFRPPRQ

$PDFKXPDPHQFRPHWRJHWKHULQRFFDVLRQDOmink’a5HODWLRQVZLWKNLQPHQ DUHDOVRH[SDQGHGZKHQWKH\PHHWLQORFDOVKRSVWRGULQNDJODVVRIEHHUZKLOH ZRPHQPHHWLQSULYDWHKRXVHVWRNQLWDQGZHDYHWRJHWKHU6RPHWLPHVWKHRI¿FHUV RIWKH3HDVDQW7UDGH8QLRQZKLFKLVWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWORFDODGPLQLVWUDWLYHXQLW VHHWKHIROORZLQJVHFWLRQIRUPRUHGHWDLOVLQYLWHWKHFRPPXQLW\WRUHJXODUDVZHOO DVRFFDVLRQDOVSHFLDOPHHWLQJVWRWDONDERXWSROLWLFDODFWLYLWLHVVXFKDVWKHSURWHVWV RI 2FWREHU RU RWKHU LVVXHV FRQFHUQLQJ FRPPXQDO OLIH 7KH µFRPPXQLW\¶ DOVR PHHWVRQWKHGD\VRI¿HVWDVUHOLJLRXVIHVWLYLWLHVDQGDWWKHRFFDVLRQDOPHHWLQJV RUJDQL]HGE\WKH-XQWD(VFRODU,QFRQWUDVWZLWK6HQNDWDZHHNO\UHOLJLRXVVHUYLFHV DUHQRW DWWHQGHGE\$PDFKXPD LQKDELWDQWV'XULQJP\¿HOGZRUN WKH&DWKROLF Church was always closed, even during the ¿HVWD –religious celebrations, and WKH3HQWHFRVWDOZHHNO\HYHQWVDWWKH%DSWLVW&KXUFKZHUHUDUHO\DWWHQGHG2QWKH RWKHUKDQG$PDFKXPDLQKDELWDQWVRIWHQRUJDQL]HULWXDOVDQGRIIHULQJVIRUWKH*RG PRXQWDLQV±$FKDFKLODV±DQGWKH0RWKHU(DUWK±3DFKDPDPD

Rural and Urban El Alto

7KHSHDVDQWFRPPXQLW\ZLWKLWVWHUULWRU\DQGUXOHVLVDFRORQLDOFUHDWLRQZLWKWKH DLPRIRUJDQL]LQJDQGPDQDJLQJQDWXUDO UHVRXUFHV6RPHRI WKHVHFRPPXQLWLHV ZHUHFUHDWHGRQWKHEDVLVRIWKHRULJLQDOayllusSUH,QFDDQG,QFDDGPLQLVWUDWLYH XQLWV DOVR NQRZQ DV µRULJLQDO FRPPXQLWLHV¶ comunidades originarias ,Q KLJKODQG%ROLYLD WKH WHUPayllu UHIHUV WR ODQGKROGLQJXQLWV $EHUFRPELH +DUULV ZKRVH ODQG FRXOG VRPHWLPHV EH GLVSHUVHG RYHU D ZLGH DUHD DQG

RFFXSLHG MRLQWO\ ZLWK RWKHU ayllus 2WKHU FRPPXQLWLHV ZHUH WKH UHVXOW RI WKH WUDQVIHURISHRSOH WR WHUULWRULHVDZD\IURPWKHLURULJLQDO ORFDWLRQ$W WKHHQGRI WKHWKFHQWXU\WKHVKLIWWRWKHWHUPcomunidadFRPPXQLW\RFFXUUHGZLWKWKH H[SDQVLRQRIWKHKDFLHQGD$IWHUWKH$JUDULDQUHIRUPLQWKHQRWLRQHPHUJHG RIWKHFRPPXQDOSURSHUW\RIDWHUULWRU\ZLWKGH¿QHGERUGHUVDQGWKHEHJLQQLQJ RIFRQÀLFWVEHWZHHQFRPPXQLWLHVDQGKDFLHQGDVODQGHVWDWHRYHUWKHULJKWWRXVH UHVRXUFHV5HQJLIR9DVTXH]

%HLQJDPHPEHURIWKHaylluPHDQVWKDWSHRSOHKDYHWRSHUIRUPFHUWDLQULWXDOV and practices (costumbresDV$PDFKXPDSHDVDQWVFDOOWKHP7KHVHSUDFWLFHVDUH FRPPXQDODQG LQYROYHSDUWLFLSDWLQJ LQ WKH ORFDO¿HVWD, in the ayni (reciprocal ZRUNDQGJLIWLQD¿HVWDLQWKHmink’aFRPPXQDOZRUNDQGLQULWXDOVDLPHG DWWKHFRPPXQLFDWLRQZLWKVXSHUQDWXUDOIRUFHV

$IWHU WKH$JUDULDQ5HIRUP LQ ayllu structures were replaced by the 7UDGH 8QLRQ HVSHFLDOO\ LQ DUHDV GRPLQDWHG E\ KDFLHQGDV ,Q $PDFKXPD SHDVDQWVRZQ WKHLURZQSORWVRI ODQGDQG WKH\DOVRKDYHDFFHVV WRFRPPXQDO ODQG LI WKH\DUHSDUWRI WKH7UDGH8QLRQ7KHUH LV URWDWLQJFXOWLYDWLRQDQG WKH FRPPXQLW\ GHFLGHVZKLFK FURSVZLOO EH JURZQRQ FRPPXQDO¿HOGV DOORFDWHG WRLQGLYLGXDOKRXVHKROGVHDFK\HDU&RPPXQDOODQGFDQEHFXOWLYDWHGXVHGIRU JUD]LQJRUIRURWKHUULWXDODQGVRFLDODFWLYLWLHVVXFKDVWKHapachita (sacred place ZKHUHVXSHUQDWXUDOIRUFHVDUHZRUVKLSSHG,IDKRXVHKROGZDQWVWRVHOOODQGWR VRPHRQHRXWVLGHRI WKHFRPPXQLW\ WKHKHDGRI WKH IDPLO\KDV WR FRQWDFW WKH 7UDGH8QLRQDQGDVNSHUPLVVLRQIRUWKHVDOH+RZHYHUWKHUHLVDWHQGHQF\QRWWR VHOOWRSHRSOHRXWVLGHWKHNLQVKLSQHWZRUN(YHQZKHQSHRSOHGHFLGHWRPLJUDWH WRRWKHUDUHDVWKH\SUHIHUWRNHHSWKHLUODQGDQGWRUHWXUQWKHUHRQFHLQDZKLOH RUWROHDYHRWKHUPHPEHUVRIWKHIDPLO\WRWDNHFDUHRIWKHSURSHUW\

7KH7UDGH8QLRQ GHFLGHV WKH ULJKWV DQG REOLJDWLRQV RI LWVPHPEHUV VXFK DV SDUWLFLSDWLRQLQFRPPXQDOZRUNURWDWLRQRIUHVSRQVLELOLWLHVcargosDQGSD\PHQW RIIHHVDVZHOODVWKHULWXDOVUHODWHGZLWKDJULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWLRQ7KH7UDGH8QLRQ LQ$PDFKXPDLQWHUYHQHVLQLQIUDVWUXFWXUDOZRUNVVXFKDVWKHPDLQWHQDQFHRIURDGV DFFHVVWRGULQNLQJZDWHUDQGWKHPDLQWHQDQFHRIWKHVFKRROEXLOGLQJEXWGRHVQRW DFWXDOO\ WDNH SDUW LQ DJULFXOWXUDO SURGXFWLRQ ZKLFK LV FDUULHG RXW E\ LQGLYLGXDO KRXVHKROGV

%\FRQWUDVWLQ6HQNDWDLWLVWKHJunta VecinalRUUHVLGHQWV¶&RPPLWWHHZKLFK SOD\VWKHUROHRIWKHORFDODGPLQLVWUDWLYHXQLWDQGWKHUHDUHLPSRUWDQWGLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQWKHWZR]RQHV,QIDFWLQ6HQNDWDWKHUHLVQRXVHRIFRPPRQODQGZLWK WKHH[FHSWLRQRIWKHPDUNHWSODFHDQGQRDJULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWLRQVLQFHLWLVWRR GHQVHO\SRSXODWHG:RPHQZKRZRUNLQWKHPDUNHWSODFHKDYHWRSD\IHHVIRU their puestos (stalls) to the Junta Vecinal7KHPDMRULW\RIP\LQIRUPDQWVRZQ the house where they live and the land on which it is built, their lote, and do not KDYHWRDVNIRUWKH-XQWD9HFLQDO¶VSHUPLVVLRQZKHQWKH\ZLVKWRVHOO7KHIHZ SHRSOHZKRGRQRWKDYHHQRXJKPRQH\WREX\DKRXVHXVXDOO\ZRUNDVFDUHWDNHUV RIWKHEXLOGLQJLQZKLFKWKH\OLYH,QWKLVZD\WKH\GRQRWKDYHWRSD\UHQWDQG RZQHUVRIWKHKRXVHVZKRDUHVFDUHGWROHDYHVHFRQGKRXVHVHPSW\EHFDXVHRI WKLHYHU\DUHHQVXUHGVRPHVHFXULW\2ZQHUVPD\DOVROHDYH\RXQJPHPEHUVRI

WKHKRXVHKROGWRWDNHFDUHRIWKHKRXVHUDWKHUWKDQFRQWUDFWLQJVRPHRQHZKRLV XQUHODWHG6LPLODUO\VRPH\RXQJSHRSOHVOHHSLQWKHORFDOVKRSVWKDWEHORQJWR WKHLUKRXVHKROGWRSURWHFWWKHIDPLO\¶VUHVRXUFHVIURPWKHIW

Conclusion

7KLVFKDSWHUKDVSUHVHQWHGDGHVFULSWLRQRIWKHFLW\RI(O$OWRDQGRXWOLQHGVRPH RIWKHLVVXHVHPHUJLQJZKHQGHDOLQJZLWKZHOOEHLQJDQGSODFH$VPHQWLRQHGDW WKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKLVFKDSWHUH[SORULQJWKHFRQFHSWRISuma Qamaña is a highly UHOHYDQWWRSLFIRUDFDGHPLFHQJDJHPHQWDWWKLVKLVWRULFDOPRPHQWZKHQ$\PDUD LQWHOOHFWXDOVDUHGH¿QLQJLQGLJHQHLW\LQWHUPVRIµUXUDOLW\¶RUDVµOLYLQJZHOOLQ WKHFRXQWU\VLGH¶± LQKDUPRQ\ZLWK WKHRWKHUPHPEHUVRI WKHFRPPXQLW\DQG ZLWK WKHQDWXUDOZRUOG<HWP\DQDO\VLVFULWLFDOO\H[DPLQHV WKH OLPLWDWLRQVRI WKHLUSROLWLFDOGLVFRXUVHDVZHOODVRIWKDWRI0RUDOHVJRYHUQPHQW

7KH GLIIHUHQFHV DPRQJ WKH YDULRXV DUHDV DQG QHLJKERXUKRRGV RI (O$OWR HQDEOHDQH[SORUDWLRQRI WKHPHDQLQJV WKDWP\ LQIRUPDQWVDWWDFK WR WKH WHUPV µXUEDQ¶DQGµUXUDO¶ZKLFKLQIRUPWKHGLIIHUHQFHVDQGUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQ6HQNDWD DQG$PDFKXPD LQ VSLWH RI WKHLU DGPLQLVWUDWLYH DQG JHRJUDSKLFDO SUR[LPLW\ 7KH µUXUDO±XUEDQ¶ IUDPHZRUN VKRZV KRZ WKHVH µUXUDOXUEDQ¶ FRQVWUXFWLRQV DQG FODVVL¿FDWLRQV DVVXPH D YHU\ LPSRUWDQW UROH IRU P\ LQIRUPDQWV DQG DUH RIWHQLQYRNHGLQQDUUDWLYHVRIPRGHUQLW\EDFNZDUGQHVVDVZHOODVRIPRUDOLW\ LPPRUDOLW\

7KLVLVHYLGHQWLQERWK¿HOGVLWHV,Q6HQNDWDSHRSOHHPSKDVL]HWKHWKHPHRI PRGHUQLW\YHUVXVEDFNZDUGQHVVZKLOHLQ$PDFKXPDWKH\WDONPRUHRIPRUDOLW\ YHUVXV LPPRUDOLW\ 7KHUHIRUH 6HQNDWD UHVLGHQWV SLFWXUH WKHLU QHLJKERXUKRRG µDVPRGHUQ¶ LQ RSSRVLWLRQ WR WKH µEDFNZDUG FRXQWU\VLGH¶2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG $PDFKXPDLQKDELWDQWVUHSURGXFHDQDFFRXQWRIWKHLU'LVWULWR5XUDODVµPRUDOO\ QXDQFHG¶LQRSSRVLWLRQWRWKHµLPPRUDOXUEDQVSDFH¶7KH$PDFKXPDUHVLGHQWV DUHµSHDVDQWVFRPPXWHUV¶KLJKO\GHSHQGHQWRQWKHFLW\DQGSDUWRILWEXWDOVR SDUWLFXODUO\SURXGWRDI¿UPWKHLUUXUDOURRWVDQGWKHFRQVHTXHQWDGRSWLRQRIFHUWDLQ YDOXHVLQRSSRVLWLRQWR6HQNDWDDQGWKHXUEDQVSDFHLQJHQHUDO7KLVLOOXVWUDWHV FOHDUO\WKHGLVFXUVLYHO\FRQVWUXFWHGFKDUDFWHURIXUEDQUXUDOGLVWLQFWLRQVZKLFK LQVSLWHRI WKHSUR[LPLW\RI$PDFKXPDDQG6HQNDWDDUHPXWXDOO\FRQVWLWXWHG LQUHODWLRQWRRQHDQRWKHUDQGLQUHODWLRQWRTXHVWLRQVRIAlteño identity, and to LGHRORJLHVRIAymaraQHVV

,Q ERWK ¿HOG VLWHV WKHUH DUH GLIIHUHQW OD\HUV RI LGHQWLW\ WKDW HPHUJH IURP SHRSOH¶VQDUUDWLYHVDQGPDQ\FRQWUDGLFWLRQVEHWZHHQZKDWSHRSOHVD\DQGGR 7KXV D VWUDLJKWIRUZDUG GLFKRWRP\ EHWZHHQ XUEDQ DQG UXUDO UHSUHVHQWV RWKHU RSSRVLWLRQV SDVWSUHVHQW LQGLJHQRXVQRQLQGLJHQRXV RU PRGHUQEDFNZDUG 'HVSLWHWKHIDFWWKDWWKHVHDUHRIWHQLQYRNHGLQP\LQIRUPDQWV¶QDUUDWLYHVWKLV FKDSWHUKDVVKRZQ WKDWHYHU\GD\ OLIH LQ(O$OWR LVPRUHQXDQFHGDQG WKDW WKH ERUGHUVEHWZHHQRSSRVLWHVDUHRIWHQKLJKO\EOXUUHGZLWKWKHUHVXOWWKDWalteños DUHQRWDKRPRJHQRXVJURXS)LQDOO\ LW LV LQFUHDVLQJO\HYLGHQW WKDWZHOOEHLQJ

UHTXLUHVDQGLVVKDSHGE\HQJDJHPHQWZLWKFXOWXUHVSHFL¿FZD\VRIKRZWREH ZHOO7KLVOLQHRIUHVHDUFKPD\HYHQWXDOO\VHUYHWRLOOXPLQDWHWKHPXOWLSOHDQG IXQGDPHQWDOZD\VLQZKLFKZHOOEHLQJLQWHUDFWVZLWKSODFHFXOWXUHDQGSROLWLFV

References

$EHUFRPELH7$Pathways of Memory and Power: Ethnography and History Among an Andean People0DGLVRQ:,8QLYHUVLW\RI:LVFRQVLQ3UHVV

$OEy;*UHDYHV7DQG6DQGRYDO*Chukiyawu: La cara Aymara de La Paz ,(O3DVRDODFLXGDG/D3D]&,3&$

$OEy;La Paz es tambien Chuquiyawa. La Paz 450 Anos (1548-1998) Tomo I0HVD)LJXHURD-*LVEHUW7DQG0HVD*LVEHUW&/D3D]&(%,$(

$OEy;6XPD4DPDxD HOEXHQYLYLUOBETS. Revista de Ciencias Sociales. 18QLYHUVLGDGGH$OLFDQWH,QVWLWXWR8QLYHUVLWDULRGH'HVDUUROOR6RFLDO\3D]

$QWH]DQD0El Alto desde El Alto II. Ciudad en Emergencia/D3D]8QLWDV %XHFKOHU + DQG %XHFKOHU -0 7KH :RUOG RI 6R¿D 9HODVTXH] 7KH

Autobiography of a Bolivian Market Vendor. 1HZ<RUN&ROXPELD8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV

&RUWHV*8QDUXUDOLGDGGHODDXVHQFLD'LQiPLFDPLJUDWRULDVLQWHUQDFLRQDOHV HQORVYDOOHVLQWHUDQGLQRVGH%ROLYLDHQXQFRQWH[WRGHFULVLV LQMigraciones Transnacionales. Visiones de Norte y Sudamérica, HGLWHGE\$+*RUGRQDYD /D3D]3,(%

&RWWOH 3 DQG 5XL] &% Violencias Encubiertas en Bolivia &HQWUR GH 'RFXPHQWDFLyQH,QIRUPDFLyQ%ROLYLD/D3D]&,3&$±$58:,<,5,

&RWWOH 3 DQG 5Xt] &% Violencias Encubiertas en Bolivia &HQWUR GH 'RFXPHQWDFLyQH,QIRUPDFLyQ%ROLYLD/D3D]&,3&$±$58:,<,5,

'I,'Bolivia – Country Strategy Paper 2002/RQGRQ'I,' *RUGRQDYD $+ Migraciones Transnacionales. Visiones de Norte y

Sudamérica/D3D]3,(% +DUULV2'LQHUR\)HUWLOLGDGEconomia Etnica/D3D]+,6%2/ +DUULV2(WKQLF,GHQWLW\DQG0DUNHW5HODWLRQV,QGLDQVDQG0HVWL]RVLQWKH

Andes, in Ethnicity, Market and Migration in the AndesHGLWHGE\%/DUVRQ2 +DUULVDQG(7DQGHWHU'XUKDP1&'XNH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV

+DUULV2To Make the Earth Bear Fruit: Essays on Fertility, Work and Gender in Highland Bolivia/RQGRQ,QVWLWXWHRI/DWLQ$PHULFD6WXGLHV

+DXVHU30DQG6FKQRUH/)The Study of Urbanization1HZ<RUN-RKQ :LOH\

,QVWLWXWR1DFLRQDOGH(VWDGtVWLFDEncuesta de Estatistica Nacional/D3D] /D]DU6Cholo Citizens: Negotiating Personhood and Building Communities

in El Alto, Bolivia. 'RFWRUDO 7KHVLV /RQGRQ $QWKURSRORJ\ 'HSDUWPHQW *ROGVPLWKV&ROOHJH8QLYHUVLW\RI/RQGRQ

1DSROLWDQR9Migration, Mujercitas, and Medicine Men: Living in Urban Mexico/RQGRQ8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD

3pUH]GH&DVWDxRV0,Derechos Humanos y Ciudadanos em El Alto/D3D] 'HIHQVRUGHO3XHEOR

3HUOPDQ-The Myth of Marginality: Urban Poverty and Politics in Rio de Janeiro%HUNHOH\&$8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD3UHVV

5HQJLIR9DVTXH]*7KH$\OOXLQThe Spirit of Regeneration: Andean Culture Confronting Western Notions of DevelopmentHGLWHGE\)$SIIHO0DUJOLQDQG 35$7(&/RQGRQ=HG%RRNV

5HYHOOR4XLURJD0Mujer costumbre y Violencia en la Ciudad de El Alto /D3D]&LGHP

6DQGRYDO*La Ciudad Prometida: Pobladores y Organizaciones Sociales /D3D],/',66<67(0$

8UWRQ*&RPPXQDOLVPDQG'LIIHUHQWLDWLRQ LQDQ$QGHDQ&RPPXQLW\ LQ Andean Cosmologies Through Time: Persistence and Emergence, HGLWHGE\5 'RYHU.(6HLEROGDQG-+0F'RZHOO%ORRPLQJWRQ0',QGLDQD8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV

:HLVPDQWHO0Cholas and Pistachos: Stories of Race and Sex in the Andes &KLFDJR,/8QLYHUVLW\RI&KLFDJR3UHVV

This page has been left blank intentionally

T&F logoTaylor & Francis Group logo
  • Policies
    • Privacy Policy
    • Terms & Conditions
    • Cookie Policy
    • Privacy Policy
    • Terms & Conditions
    • Cookie Policy
  • Journals
    • Taylor & Francis Online
    • CogentOA
    • Taylor & Francis Online
    • CogentOA
  • Corporate
    • Taylor & Francis Group
    • Taylor & Francis Group
    • Taylor & Francis Group
    • Taylor & Francis Group
  • Help & Contact
    • Students/Researchers
    • Librarians/Institutions
    • Students/Researchers
    • Librarians/Institutions
  • Connect with us

Connect with us

Registered in England & Wales No. 3099067
5 Howick Place | London | SW1P 1WG © 2021 Informa UK Limited