ABSTRACT
In the 1990s the EU shifted its external focus eastward, towards transitioning countries, and gave further impetus to the Association Agreements with partners in the Maghreb. The Commission also issued a Green Paper (1996), to deal with the unsatisfactory results of the non-reciprocal provisions of the Lomé process (Holland 2002). A redefinition of the EU relations with long-standing ACP partners, however, only came about in the new millennium, with the Cotonou Agreement. Entered into force in June 2000, the Cotonou framework provided for the creation of reciprocal trade-liberalizing European Partnership Agreements (EPAs) between the EU and individual African countries, to be implemented across an eight-year period. In March 2001 Brussels backed the launching of two initiatives, the African Union (AU, in 2002) and the NEPAD. Since 9/11, the Union has also given prominence to enhanced political dialogue with ACP partners, specifically focusing on security-related issues, particularly the fight against terrorism and weapons of mass destruction (Carbone 2008, 34–35). In 2005 the Union entered into a comprehensive partnership with the AU, through the Africa–EU Partnership, followed in 2007 by the Joint Africa EU Strategy (JAES). 1 Linking North and Sub-Saharan countries under the same comprehensive framework marked a major redefinition in EU–Africa relations, as did the support that Brussels provided to peace processes in conflict-ridden countries post-9/11. An extant example of North–South ‘deep’ preferential system, the EPA system was generally praised for its progressive and inclusionary nature. Overall, however, the the Economic Partnership Agreements have also undergone early criticism under multiple angles (Bilal and Stevens 2009).
