ABSTRACT
In recognizing the importance of education for economic and social development, policy makers have long focused their interest and effort on such mainstream institutions as kindergartens, schools and universities. In doing so, they neglected the role of private supplementary tutoring. This tutoring is widely known as shadow education as it attempts to replicate the mainstream experience. Furthermore, as Bray and Lykins (2012) have pointed out, as the content of mainstream education changes so does the content of the shadow, and as the mainstream grows, so also does the shadow.
