ABSTRACT
In 829 the papacy cautiously expressed the opinion that the spiritual power was superior to the temporal. The abbeys therefore suffered more than the bishoprics, and during the civil wars and Norse invasions of the ninth century many monasteries disappeared and others became handfuls of poverty-stricken monks. In the eleventh century Cluny, previously concerned only with the reform of monastic life, encouraged the demand for the extension of celibacy to the secular clergy, and began to agitate against lay investiture. Germany was exhausted by the prolonged wars and anxious for peace, one by one Henry's enemies died, and by 1091 he was in undisputed control. After another miserable civil war Henry V marched again upon Rome, intervened without much success in the papal elections, and finally concluded with Pope Calixtus II the Concordat of Worms. But the Church at least on paper won the principle of ecclesiastical investiture.
