ABSTRACT
This chapter sufficiently develops the concept of the contingency to show that it does relate directly to means-end units. A contingency is an if-then relation between behavior and end result. Operant psychologists assume that contingencies are present in the human world independent of our theoretical formulations and empirical interventions. It is worth noting that operant psychologists distinguish nonverbal from verbal contingencies and nonsocial from social contingencies. The exploration of the effects of contingencies on performance has revealed some invariances. At center are two qualitative invariances known as reinforcement and punishment. The principle of punishment in operant psychology relates to the concept of a negative action. The knowledge accumulated by research in operant psychology is based on systematic replication. The concept of replication is also central to radical behaviorism. Contingencies are basic independent variables in operant research, and they constitute the primary objects of interest to operant psychologists.
