The Far East

In the Far East, the consuls and traders encountered a totally different system of international relations than in Europe: the Sino-centric system. ¹ Whereas in Europe, the sovereign states were sovereign and nominally equal, creating an anarchic system of international relations, in Asia states were placed in a hierarchy with China, the Middle Kingdom, at the top. All other states were considered vassals and were inferior because they had not become Sinicized. The hierarchy was based on the level of absorption of Chinese culture, including Confucianism. Nearby states, like Korea, the Kingdom of Ryukyu, Japan and Vietnam, had become more Sinicized than faraway states like Siam or India. To acknowledge the superiority of the Chinese emperor, the vassal states were obliged to send delegations and pay tribute. ² The frequency of missions and the size of the accompanying group depended on the distance to the Middle Kingdom and thus the level of civilization.