ABSTRACT
Survey research examines a limited number of variables and their associations across many organizations. The goal is to account for a small number of independent variables. A key challenge in conducting research on organizations is to find a defensible measure of organizational performance. Research and writing on national cultures have often asserted that management practices must align with those cultures. Research initiated by Elizabeth Letzler examined what might be described as the full-blown conceptual causal model. Elizabeth Letzler invited participants at management training seminars offered by a large training organization in New York City to voluntarily and anonymously complete a questionnaire. C. A. Hartnell and colleagues in 2016 found that organizational performance is highest when task-oriented leadership style is at odds with organizational culture. Customer-directed practices had a somewhat lower association with organizational performance than the other two sets of practices.
