ABSTRACT
The central question of political theory in the first half of the seventeenth century was whether kings held their authority directly from God by divine right and therefore were above the law or whether kings owed their authority to the consent of the people and therefore were below the law. In reality, most European nations could be placed on a spectrum between the abstract poles of absolutism and popular sovereignty. In England, monarchical power depended on the support of royal ministers, judges, and justices of the peace, all of whom maintained some degree of autonomy. By the seventeenth century, more people in Europe had become educated, especially in urban areas, and were as likely to question political authority as they were to challenge religious or intellectual authorities. The dynastic and territorial wars that spilled over into the seventeenth century and the increasing cost of those wars led European rulers to seek even greater authority over their subjects.
