Introduction

“He wrought out of Russia a real metamorphosis, a transformation.” These words of Piotr Shafirov, the vice-chancellor of Petrine times, from his 1717 treatise Considerations on the Causes of the Swedish War, suggest that Peter I’s contemporaries already understood clearly the significance of the transformation of Russia going on before their eyes. The upheaval was especially violent because underlying this “metamorphosis” was the will of a single person, like an ancient titan lifting an overwhelming burden. This is beyond doubt, whatever we may say about the role played by his supporters, by “productive forces,” and so forth.