ABSTRACT
Terracotta fragment, probably of a cylindrical drum. Abu Hawan, ca. 1000 BCE (Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem) ‘ALAMOT (Heb. âǎlāmôÓ/twml[, from the noun âalmā/hml[ (“a girl”) or from the homonymous noun “a secret”. Other possible hypotheses of its origin are: from âôlām/!lw[ (“eternity”) or from âǎlûmîm/!ymlw[ (“youth”). It is one of the unclear biblical musical terms, and has some functional link with sheminit (Chapter 5). In the Tanakh* it is mentioned twice. The first time it occurs in 1 Chr. 15:20 together with the name of a musical instrument: “on the nevels on the ‘alamot” (binºālîm âal-âǎlāmôÓ/twml[-l[ !ylbnb). The second time it appears in the heading of Ps. 46 along with another musical instruction “a song on the ‘alamot” (âal-âǎlāmôÓ šîr/ryv twml[Al[). All four etymological variants can be found in a great variety of contradictory interpretations of the term, both in Bible translations and in the extensive exegetical and scholarly comments. The last two meanings (“eternity” and
“youth”) are dominant in the early translation tradition of the Psalter: “in the ages” (πèρ τν ανων in Symm.), “for the youth” (πì νεανικóτητων in Aq., “pro juventutibus” in PsHebr), and later on in the German and Dutch sixteenth-century versions (“von den Jugent” in LB and “van der eucht” in BGvW). The two main ancient translations of the Bible (LXX and Vulg.), as well as many of the later translations (including the first English WyclB1 and DouB, German NüB, Italian BIM, Czech PrB, and almost all Church Slavonic translations, from GennB down to ElizB) follow the second possible etymology of ‘alamot, “a secret”, and render it in Ps. 46 (LXX 45) as πèρ τν κρυφíων (LXX), “pro arcanis” (PsGal), “for the priue things” (WyclB), “for the hidden” (DouB), “le cose secrete” (BIM), “heimlichkeit” (NüB),2 “tayne wieczy prozpiewowachu” (PrB), w òàéíûõú (the original MS of the GennB and its main complete copies: SidB, JoachB, UvarB,3 and also SkorB, OstB, MoscB, ElizB). In 1 Chr. 15:20 it appears as “mysteries upon psalteries” (DouB), “heimlich gesang” (NüB), “oor de verborghentheden” (BNvW), òàéíû ïî#õu (GennB, ElizB), and òèõîãëàñíî ïî#õu (OstB, MoscB). According to Sebastiano Castalione’s sixteenth-century Latin version (CastB)4 ‘alamot signifies the musical conducting of the ensemble of girls (“puellis praeerant”). This interpretation has nothing to do with the etymology of the term. In a number of cases (BLJ, KJV, RSV, NIV, NASB, SBE, KMT, TanJer) the translators preferred to maintain the enigma and give just a phonetic transliteration (alamoth, аламот)5, or put it as the name of a musical instrument.6 So in 1 Chr. 15:20 it is conveyed as ν νáβλαις πì λαμẃθ (LXX), “on Alamoth” (BpB),7 “sur Alamoth” (LyB),8 “sur Halamoth” (GenB),9 “super alamoth” (BLJ),10 “taviłnerov Alamoti” (WAB), на аламоф лирах (WCBT). In Ps. 46 (LXX 45) it is found as “na Alamot” (KrB, BP), “ad Alamoth” (CastB, BLJ), íà ìóñèêiéñêîì îðóäiè àëàìîòú èìÿíógìîì (AmPs),11 на музыкальном орудии Аламоф (SynB), на инструменте аламоф (WCBT). In the heading of Ps. 46 the expression âal-âǎlāmôÓ appears in its early sense “girls”. Like the word “shushan” it may well be the first line of the text of a song, and Ps. 46, as some Bible translations render it, could possibly be sung to the melody of this song (“nach der Weise ‘Jungfrauen’ ” in BEBD, “op de wijze ‘De jonkfrowen’ ” in BNBG). There exists, however, another rendering as a vocal term. The editors of NJB explain the phrase “set to Alamot” as a song “probably intended for the soprano”. In 1 Chr. 15:20 the same expression is interpreted in a number of more modern Bible translations as an instrument with a high register (“pri zpewu wysokem” in KrB,12 “przy spiewaniu wysokiém” in BP, “les notes aigues” in BFC, “con tonalitá piu alta” in BILC, “hoog afgestemd” in BNBG, “lutes set for soprano voices” in
MofB, “high pitched harps” in TEV, “harps tuned to alamoth” in NASB,13 “v nizki legi” in SSP, на псалтирях тонким голосом in SynB). Such understanding is based on the association of the high tessitura of a female voice with a special method of tuning a stringed instrument (the nevel). In the scholarly literature the range of renderings is also extremely wide. Some are very unlikely, as for instance, “a secret ritual at the feast of the enthronement of YHWH” (S. Mowinckel), or a distorted name of the clan of Temple singers amongst whose duties was singing psalms (T. K. Cheyne). Other hypotheses are more realistic. Thus the phrase could signify the participation of a female choir in the service14 (according to J. W. Thirtle), or a male ensemble singing (according to K. H. Cornill). There are a few theories in which ‘alamot is regarded as a musical instrument. (1) A double reed instrument with pipes of different lengths originating from the ancient state of Elam (H. H. Graetz). The adherents of this idea base it on the phonetic assonance of the word “‘alamot” and the name of the analogous ancient Greek double aulos elim (E. Werner).15 (2) A harp tuned in a special manner though without any specification of the manner (D. A. Foxvog and A. D. Kilmer). (3) A certain kind of bagpipe (A. Z. Idelsohn). (4) A nevel of small size with a high register (A. Sendrey). However, there is also the view that any specific instrumental rendition of the term is illegitimate and that the term relates to the musicians, young girls who played stringed instruments (C. Sachs). In Modern Hebrew the word “‘alamot” maintains its original meaning, “girls”. DAHAVAN, see KELIM HIGGAION (Heb. higgāyōn/@wygh, from the verb hā©ā/hgh, “to produce a sound”, “to utter”), one of the unclear words mentioned in the Old Testament with meanings that differ according to the context: the growling of a lion (Isa. 31:4), the moaning of a dove (Isa. 38:14), mourning (Jer. 48:31) and meditation (Ps. 19:15, RSV 19:14). Supposedly musical meanings are also ascribed to higgaion in two cases. In the first it is followed by the word “selah” (Ps. 9:17, RSV 9:16) and in the second it is followed by the name of the musical instrument kinnor (Ps. 92:4, RSV 92:3). In both verses the phrases make up one semantic unit.16 There has never been an agreed understanding of higgaion in the history of Bible translation. In combination with “selah” it is related in some of the early translations to the sphere of instrumental music and rendered as “a song of the interlude” (δ διαψáλματος in LXX and “canticum diapsalmatis” in PsGal). In other ancient versions, however, it is referred to singing: “a song forever” (δ εí in Aq.), “a sound forever” (φθóγγος εí in Theod. and
“sonitu sempiterno” in PsHebr). In some early versions (Syr., for instance) it is omitted. In later Bible translations it is also often lacking (early English WyclB and DouB, Czech PrB, German NüB, sixteenth-century Latin CastB and Dutch BNvW, nineteenth-century Polish BP, all Church Slavonic versions and the Russian SynB). However, at times it appears in transliterated form as “higgaion sela/selah” (LyB, GenB,17 BLJ, KrB, BpB,18 KJV, RSV, NASB, TEV, NIV, SBE, BILC, BNBG, KMT, SSP, WCBT and TanJer).19 There are even a few cases where higgaion is represented as an “instrumental interlude” (KMA and BEBD). In combination with the kinnor higgaion is understood in the majority of Bible versions both ancient and modern as a song: μετ δς in LXX, “cum cantico” in PsGal, “col cantico” in BIM, “mit dem Gesang” in NüB, “s piesniczku” in PrB, “avec le cantique” in GenB, “metter lofsanck” in BNvW, “with the song” in BpB, “with the canticle” in DouB, “z spiewaniem” in BP, ñ ïhñíiþ in the original MS of the GennB, and in its main complete copies (SidB, JoachB, UvarB, also in OstB, MoscB, ElizB), and с песнью in SynB. In other versions it is identified as a melody (“melody” in RSV, NIV and TEV; “modulamine” in CastB) accompanied by the kinnor. Some translations give higgaion as a solo played on the kinnor: “mit Spielen” (LB and BEBD), “met Spelen, bij snarenspel” (BGvW and BNBG), “sweet music” (MofB), “resounding music” (NASB). Finally higgaion is translated as conveying the sound quality of an instrument (“with a solemn sound” in KJV, “en tono suave” in SBE, “to the murmur of the harp” in NJB, and на мелодичной арфе in WCBT). The scholarly literature gives a large number of hypothetical explanations concerning the lexical combination “higgaion selah”. Among them the three suggestions that have the most support are: (a) “higgaion selah” is a composite term, and “selah” is a shortened variant; (b) higgaion is either a gloss or a synonym for “selah” and when necessary they can replace each other; (c) in the original composition of the Psalter the expression “higgaion selah” was supposed to be used everywhere. Later the first word fell away in all cases, except for Ps. 9:17, since here it occurs for the first time. The opinions of scholars on the meanings of the word “higgaion” are diverse. W. Gesenius and O. Glaser assume that “higgaion” reflected a gentle, rustling plucking of the strings of the kinnor. In the opinion of Glaser, however, such an understanding can be applied only to Ps. 92:4. In Ps. 9:17 a sort of “intermezzo” is meant, performed by an instrumental ensemble similar to that described in 1 Chr. 15:16. According to A. Tomaschoff the term could signify both the manner of singing and a certain type of instrument. E. R. Wendland also leaves the question open. F. A. Tholuck and E. W. Hengstenberg state that “higgaion” and “selah” were particular lexical symbols that indicated the beginning of a rest during which the musicians
had to meditate. S. Mowinckel, on the other hand, regards “higgaion” as the name of the interlude. Its loud sound was accompanied by special ritual exclamations (“Amen”, “Hallelujah”, “The Lord is holy” and others) sung by the whole congregation. By means of these exclamations people confirmed or emphasized the most important themes of the psalm. J. W. Thirtle rejects any musical rendering of higgaion. In Modern Hebrew the word “higgaion” does not have any musical sense. It is used in philosophy and means “logic” or “a thought”. KELE-‘OZ, see KELIM. KELE-SHIR, see KELIM. KELI-NEVEL, see KELIM. KELIM (Heb. kēlîm/!ylk, pl. from kəlî/ylk, lit. “a vessel”, figuratively meaning “a receptacle of the sounds”, that is, musical instruments),20 the most widespread generic term in the Bible. In this grammatical form it is mentioned in the Tanakh* just once (1 Chr. 23:5). However, there are also a number of other lexical and semantic variants: kele-‘oz (kəlê-âōz/z[Aylk, “loud instruments”, 2 Chr. 30:21), neginot and the Aramaic analogue “kol zene zemara’ ”21 (kōl zənê zəmārā’/armz ynz lk, “all kinds of music” that is, instruments in Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15). The stringed instruments denoted by the phrase “kele-shir” or “kele-hashir” (kəlê-šîr, kəlê-hāššîr/ryvAylk, ryvhAylk, “vessels for singing” (that is, musical instruments that accompany the singing) form a special subgroup. These two phrases occur seven times, mainly in the historical books of the Tanakh (1 Chr. 15:16;22 16:42; 2 Chr. 5:13; 7:6; 23:13; 34:12; Amos 6:5). Other synonymous combinations are: kele-shir David (kəlê-šîr ÄāwiÄ/dwd ryvAylk, “David’s instruments for singing”, Neh. 12:36), kele-David(kəlê-ÄāwiÄ/ dwdAylk, “David’s instruments”, 2 Chr. 29:26, 27), keli-nevel (kəlî-neºel/ lbnAylk, “instrument of the nevel type”, Ps. 71:22), kele (han)nevalim (kəlê nəºalîm/!ylbn(h) ylk, “instruments of the nevel type”, 1 Chr. 16:5; Isa. 22:24), minnim (minnîm/!ynm, “strings”, Pss 45:9; 150:4). Sometimes the alternative phrase “lashsharim” (laššārîm/!yrVl, “for the singers”, 1 Kgs 10:12; 2 Chr. 9:11) follows the name of an instrument (kinnor or nevel). It confirms that these stringed instruments accompanied the liturgical singing of the Levites.23 The question whether king David produced musical instruments is still subject to debate, despite direct indications in the Bible (1 Chr. 23:5; Ps. 151:2-3) and indirect witness in the writings of Josephus (A.J. VII, 12:3). Some scholars (A. Sendrey and others) assume that David probably organ-
ized and supervised the work of the instrument makers, supplying them with the necessary materials. Ancient Bible versions follow the MT and render all variants of the notion “kelim” as “musical organs” (ργανα in LXX, “organa” in Vulg., manē tušəbatā, znē zmarā in Syr.). The same interpretation is maintained in the first versions in English (“orguns/orgyns” in WyclB), Italian (“organa” in BIM) and Dutch (“organe der musike” in BB), as well as in the pre-Luther German editions (“orgeln der sayttenspiel” in NüB). It constantly appears in the Western Slavonic (“nástroge hudebny”, “hudbi nástrogi”, “wsseligaké muzyki”, “orudie piesni” in PrB and KrB), Church Slavonic and Russian traditions (wðãàíû/àðãàíû in GennB and its main copies, SidB, JoachB, UvarB, also in OstB, MoscB and ElizB; îðóäi#, орудия in Russian AmPs. and SynB). From the sixteenth century onwards the term “musical instruments” is introduced, and is used in the majority of more modern translations: “instruments de musique” in LyB, GenB and BFC; “instrumenten van musijcke”, “musijck instrumenten” in BNvW, “muziekinstrumenten” in BNBG; “instrumenty muzyczny” in BP; “musical instruments” in DouB, KJV, MofB, RSV, NIV, TEV, NJB, CEV; “instruments of musicke” in BpB, “instruments of music” in MofB and NASB; “gli instrumenti musicali” in BILC; “instrumentos de musica” in SBE; “glasbili” in SSP; “nvagaranner” in EAB and WAB; музыкальные инструменты in WCBT and TanJer. Sometimes kelim is interpreted as referring only to stringed instruments (“Snarenspelen” in BGvW, “Saitenspielen” in BEBD, which follows Luther’s rendering). The biblical text contains one more supposedly typological definition, that of dahavan (Äaǎºān/@wjd, from the verb Äāā/hjd, “to throw, to push”, Dan. 6:19). Presumably it relates to the membranophone subgroup of the percussion that usually accompanies women’s dances. The interpretation of this word both in Bible translations and in exegetical commentaries is very diverse. The ancient sources (LXX, Theod., Vulg., Syr.) unanimously associate it with food24 (δéσματα, cibus, mekultā), which fits the context of the verse. Many later versions follow this interpretation: (“metis” in WyclB, “meat” in DouB, “spiese” in BB, “eten” in BgvW,25 “spijsen” in BNvW, “mensa” in BLJ, “die essen” in NüB, “Essen” in LB and BEBD, “nourriture” in BFC, “cibo” in BIM and BILC, “yemek” in KMT, +äè in GennB and its main copies, also in OstB, MoscB and ElizB, пища in SynB). However, there are a number of translations where “dahavan” is regarded not merely as food, but figuratively as “entertainment, amusement” (“obwesseliti” in KrB, “wesele” in BP, “diversions” in RSV and AJV, “eating … entertainment” in NIV and “food…entertainment” in TEV, “afleiding” in BNBG, развлекали in WCBT). This understanding accounts for the “dancing girls” (MofB)26 accompanied by the percussion instruments so loved by eastern despots.
