ABSTRACT
On the Gnostic criticism of the Old Testament see Elaine Pagels, The Gnostic Gospels (New York, 1979). Georges Duby, The Europe of the Cathedrals, 114(}-1280, translated by Stuart Gilbert (Geneva, 1966), has a stimulating and beautifully illustrated discussion of the new emphasis in western theology and art on the humanity ofJesus. On the hermits see Henrietta Leyser, Hermits and the New Monasticism. A Study of Religious Communities in Western Europe, 100(}-1150 (New York, 1984). For readable accounts of some of the wandering preachers of the twelfth century see Ellen Scott Davison, Forerunners of Saint Francis and Other Studies (Boston, Mass., 1927). For a well-informed discussion of the apostolic life, with translations of important documents, see Rosalind B. Brooke, The Coming of the Friars, Historical Problems: Studies and Documents, 24 (New York, 1975). On the social and theological changes implicit in the search for the vita apostolica see MarieDominique Chenu, 'Monks, Canons, and Laymen in Search of the Apostolic Life', in Nature, Man, and Society in the Twelfth Century, translated by Jerome Taylor and Lester K. Little (Chicago, Ill., 1968), pp. 202-38. Brenda Bolton, The Medieval Reformation (London, 1983), provides a useful, brief study of religious ferment in the twelfth century.
