Russia

Where one may debate the relative backwardness of France and the German states prior to 1850, there is no room for argument about the northernmost great power. Only in the Iberian and Balkan extremities of Europe could comparably primitive economic conditions be found, not only before 1850 but until the century’s turn. Opinions as to when Russia began to shrug off this incubus are conventionally pessimistic. R. W. Goldsmith describes Russia in 1861 as ‘predominantly agrarian … without the characteristics of nineteenth century industrialization’ and believes her to be ‘still an underdeveloped country’ on the eve of the 1917 revolution. ¹ For Warren Nutter no effective attempt to break out of backwardness is made until the late date of 1928, with the initiation of the First Five Year Plan. ²