ABSTRACT
The contrast between the empires and the other monarchies of the sixteenth century was not one between medieval universalism and modern nationalism. Membership of the older orders of chivalry the Order of the Garter in England, of the Golden Fleece in the Netherlands, of St Michael in France, of Santiago, Calatrava and Alcintara in Spain carried with it great social prestige and sometimes, as with the Golden Fleece, valuable political privileges. The choice of kings following the extinction of the house of Jagiello in 1572 showed the extent of the victory of the nobility the freedom of the Polish Republic, as it was optimistically called; for the peasants and townsmen were carefully excluded from it. It was in western Europe that conditions were particularly favourable for the development of strong monarchies in the sixteenth century. In France, Spain and Italy the sale of crown property came more and more to include the sale of government offices.
