ABSTRACT
Russia's First World War confirmed the lack of common ground between the tsarist state and 'educated society'. In respect of refugee relief, government officials, the voluntary organisations and private welfare agencies all became involved, with some staff moving between them. It remembered that many professionals embarked on careers in the civil service, as statisticians, doctors and legal advisers. Naturally enough, few of them adopted a hostile stance towards tsarist authority. Zemstvo and municipal activists drew a contrast between the broadly positive relationship they enjoyed with the military authorities at the front and the sour attitude of central government, which sought to curb attempts by the public organisations to assume overall responsibility for refugee relief. The provincial war industry committees had in their sights the longstanding association between big business and the state. They constituted a self-conscious alternative to official efforts at industrial mobilisation, to unlock untapped potential among small businessmen, technical specialists and workers.
