The Germans

Dec. After Napoleon's disastrous Moscow campaign, Prussia switches sides, allying with Russia by the Convention ofTauroggen

1813 Feb. Formal alliance of Kalisz between Prussia and Russia against France May Prussians and Russians defeated by Napoleon at Liitzen and Bautzen Oct. Joint Prussian-Russian-Austrian armies defeat Napoleon at Leipzig (,The Battle of the Nations'). The Confederation of the Rhine evaporates

The Gennan Cunfederatiun (1815-1866) 1815 Jun. Congress of Vienna: 'German Confederation' of 39 states under permanen t Austrian presidency established Aug. Prussia joins Austria and Russia in Holy Alliance 1816 May Karl-August of Saxe-Weimar grants the first constitution In 'Germany' Nov. First meeting of the Diet of the German Confederation, In Frankfurt

1817 Oct. Wartburg Festival to celebrate 300th anniversary of the Reformation reveals the new militancy of nationalist youth in the Burschenschaften 1818 May Constitution granted in Bavaria Aug. Constitution granted in Baden

1826 Start of publication of the Monurnenta Germaniae Histrnica, a multi-volume collection of primary sources for medieval German history edited by Baron vom Stein. Each volume carries the same motto: 'Sanctus amar patriae dat ani mum' (the holy love of the fatherland inspires us) 1830 Sep. Revolts in Hesse, Brunswick and Saxony dethrone their kings and occasion new liberal constitutions

1831 Jan. Hesse-Cassel granted a constitution Sep. Saxony granted a constitution

1832 May Hambach Festival demands revolt against Austrian rule

1835 May Baden joins Zollverein 1837 Jun. Constitution granted in Hanover in 1833 is suspended. Struggle between state and Roman Catholic Church in Prussia is forerunner of the Kulturkampf of the 1870s 1840-1858/1861 Reign of Frederick William IV of Prussia

1840 French expansionist ambitions provoke the 'Rhine Crisis'

1841 Friedrich List's National System of Political Economy published, advocating the economic nationalism of a united Germany 1842 Sep. Consecration (and commitment to completion) ofCologne/Koln Cathedral, attended by Frederick William IV: 'The Rhine is German'

1848 Mar. Uprising in Berlin forces Frederick William IV to grant Prussia a constitution. Vorparlament convenes in Frankfurt May Prussia invades Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein. German National Assembly meets in Frankfurt, and suspends the German Confederation. Prussian National Assembly meets in Berlin Aug. Prussia and Denmark make peace by the Treaty of Malmo Dec. Dissolution of Prussian National Assembly. German National Assembly proclaims fundamental rights

1849 Jan. Prussia demands a united Germany excluding Austria Mar. German National Assembly in Frankfurt passes a constitution, and offers Frederick William IV of Prussia the title of 'Emperor of the Germans' Apr. Frederick William refuses the crown of Germany May Pruss ian forces suppress revolt in Dresden. 'Three Kings' League' of Prussia, Saxony and Hanover formed Jun. German National Assembly moves from Frankfurt to Stuttgart, where it is forcibly dissolved by troops Jul. Rebels in Baden surrender to Prussians at Rastatt

1850 Jan. Prussia granted a liberal constitution Mar. Frederick William IV summons a German Parliament to Erfurt Apr. Erfurt Parliament opens May Schwarzenburg revives old Confederation Diet of Frankfurt, inviting all German states to send delegates to discuss revision of the German Confederation to establish a new authority for 'Germany' Jut. Under pressure from Russia, Prussia and Denmark sign the Peace of Berlin (favouring Denmark) Sep. Diet of German Confederation convenes, pointedly not attended by Prussia. Rising in Hesse-Cassel: Austria supports the Elector, Prussia supports the insurgents Nov. Convention of Olmiltz: a humiliation of Prussia imposed by Austria (and supported by Russia). Prussia agrees to back down over HesseCassel, abandon its 'Erfurt Union' and accept the authority of the German Confederation Dec. Dresden Conference: Schwarzenberg forced to abandon his plan to include the Habsburg Empire in the Confederation

1851 May Prussia formally rejoins German Confederation 1852-1853 Foundation of Germanic National Museum in Nuremberg

1853 German customs union (Zollverein) renewed for another 12 years and joined by Hanover and Oldenburg. Austria only secures a commercial treaty with Prussia (not the Austro-German customs union wanted by Bruck, Austrian Minister for Commerce) 1854 Oct. Prussian Upper House (Herrenhaus) established 1855 Jan. Bismarck, Prussian mInIster at Frankfurt, persuades Diet that German Confederation should keep out of the Crimean War (to Austria's annoyance) 1858-1861 Regency occasioned by insanity of Frederick William IV

1860 Feb. Von Roon presents his military reform plan to Prussian Landtag

1861 Oct. Saxony proposes tripartite reorganisation of German Confederation Dec. Prussia rejects 'Saxon proposal': Confederation is unreformable, making necessary the unification of Germany under Pruss ian leadership

1863 Jan. Austrian proposals for revamped Confederation finally defeated in the Diet after Prussia threatens to walk out Feb. Polish Uprising: Bismarck enters into alliance with Russia to effect a join t suppression of Polish nationalism Mar. Denmark incorporates Schleswig Aug. Bismarck persuades William I not to attend an Austrianorganised meeting of the German princes at Frankfurt to reform the German Confederation Oct. German Diet votes for action against Denmark Dec. Hanoverian and Saxon forces invade Holstein

1865 Aug. Convention of Gastein: Austria receives Holstein, Prussia receives Schleswig and Kiel (and purchases Lauenberg) Oct. Bismarck and Napoleon III meet at Biarritz, and agree on Prussian ascendancy in Germany and the need for a unified Italy

and through France to Italy, in order to free 100,000 Austrian troops for transfer from Italy to the Prussian front. Rapid Prussian advance towards Vienna forces Austria into preliminary peace negotiations at Nikolsburg Aug. Prussia signs peace treaties with Bavaria, Wurttemberg and Baden. Treaty of Prague. German Confederation dissolved and Austria excluded from Germany; Prussia annexes Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau and Frankfurt; Austria cedes Venetia to Italy and pays reparations of 40,000 thalers

The North Gennan Corifederatiun (1866-1871) 1866 Aug. Treaty of Prague: North German Confederation (dominated by Prussia) replaces German Confederation (dominated by Austria). Secret agreement between Prussia and south German states: reciprocal guarantee of territorial integrity but, in the event of war, all southern states to place their forces under the command of Prussia Sep. Peace signed between Prussia and Hesse Oct. Peace signed between Prussia and Saxony

1867 Feb. First Diet of the North German Confederation agrees the constitution of the Confederation (operative from April 1867): the presidency of the Confederation is united with the crown of Prussia, which represents the Confederation in international relations, diplomacy, war and peace. Bismarck becomes Chancellor of the Confederation May Luxembourg Question: Bismarck prevents Napoleon III acquiring Luxembourg from Holland by agreeing to withdraw his Prussian garrison in exchange for international Great Power guarantee of the neutrality of Luxembourg by the London Conference Jul. Customs treaties between the North German Confederation and the south German states

1870 Jul. Hohenzollern candidacy for the Spanish throne increases Prussian-French tensions. 'Ems Telegram' incident inflames French public opinion against Prussia. War fever in France prompts French declaration of war. Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871. Confederation Reichstag votes war credits unanimously Sep. Prussian victory over French at Sedan. Surrender of Sedan and Napoleon III. Siege of Paris begins Oct. French forces at Metz capitulate Nov. Southern German states of Bavaria and Wiirttemberg ally with North German Confederation (22nd and 23rd to do so)

The (Second) Gennan Empire (1871-1914)

1876 Fearing permanent religious division within the new Germany, Bismarck makes moves towards reconciliation with the Catholic Church

1877 Administration and procedure of justice unified and standardised throughout Germany

1878 Feb. Pope Pius IX dies. His successor, Pope Leo XIII, advances a more conciliatory line, resulting in Bismarck and a papal envoy meeting for talks at Bad Kissingen fvIay-Orl. Two assassination attempts on Bismarck with the pretext for introducing including a ban on trade union activitv

1881 Bismarck announces to the Reichstag a comprehensive welfare svstem for the German working classes, to be phased in o\'er the 1880s

1882 Apr. Anti-Semitic League founded in Prussia May Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italv form Triple Alliance

1883 Niederwald Monument at Rudesheim consecrated

1886 Apr. Prussian laws expropriating Polish landowners in Posen

1887 Jan. Bismarck's demands for increased military expenditure countered by Reichstag's demand for greater control over military budget. Bismarck dissolves the Reichstag. General election produces a new Reichstag favourable to Bismarck Jun. RRinsurance Treaty with Russia

1888 lVIar. Crown Prince Frederick succeeds as Emperor on death ofvVilliam I Jun. Frederick III dies, succeeded as German Emperor by William II (1888-1918)

1889 Bismarck and William II clash over social policy

1890 Jan.-Feb. Reichstag rejects Bismarck's anti-socialist legislation and is dissolved. The general election produces a new Reichstag with a substantially-increased socialist and radical representation. With his political position badly weakened, Bismarck revives a Prussian cabinet order of 1852 which stipulates that ministers may communicate with the Emperor only through the Minister-President (Bismarck himself). William II is outraged and demands the repeal of the order Mar. William II accuses Bismarck of dereliction of duty in not warning Austria of Russian troop movements in the Balkans. Bismarck resigns, and is replaced as Minister-President by Caprivi Jun. Germany allows Reinsurance Treaty with Russia to lapse

1891 Apr. Pan-German League formed. Count Schlieffen becomes Chief of German General Staff

1892 Nov. Caprivi introduces Army Bill involving expansion of the army by 84,000 men, which is rejected by the Reichstag 1893 Jui. Caprivi dissolves Reichstag. General election produces a more nationalist Reichstag which (narrowly) passes the Army Bill 1894 Oct. William II demands anti-socialist legislation. Caprivi refuses and resigns; succeeded as Chancellor by Prince Hohenlohe

1895 Jun. Kiel Canal opened, effecting for the first time direct Germancontrolled access between the Baltic and North Seas. Subversion Bill (which includes making 'disparagement of the state' a punishable offence) rejected by Reichstag 1896 Jan. William II sends the Kruger Telegram, antagonising Britain

1897 Jun. Admiral von Tirpitz becomes Secretary of State for the Navy Oct. Move in Prussian Landtag to give police power to dissolve all societies 'threatening law, order and the state' is defeated Nov. New Foreign Minister Bulow asserts Germany's imperial ambitions: 'We do not wish to put anyone in the shade but we do demand our place in the sun.' Kyffhauser Monument in Thuringia completed

1898 Mar. Naval Bill for the expansion of the German fleet, proposed by Tirpitz, passed by Reichstag Apr. Tirpitz sponsors the founding of the German Navy League (Flotterverein) to campaign for further expansion, supported by industrialists like Krupp

1900 Jui. Second Naval Bill passed by Reichstag: Tirpitz's proposal to increase number of German capital ships to 36 accepted by large majority 1901 Oct. Bulow becomes Chancellor (1901-1909) 1903 May Polish school strike in Prussian province of Posen. Sickness and accident insurance for workers extended

1905 Tangier Incident. Schlieffen Plan devised, commIttmg future German wartime strategy to a swift knock-out blow against France

1907 Jun.-Oct. At Second Hague Peace Conference, Germany rejects any scheme for disarmament Jul. Triple Alliance renewed for a further six years

1908 Jun. Fourth Naval Bill Oct. Daily Telegraph Affair: William II's feisty press interview glorifying German Weltpolitik outrages British public opinion

1908-1909 Bosnian Crisis: Germany backs Austria-Hungary in the Balkans, to the anger and frustration of Russia

1909 Jul. Bulow's finance bill (raising indirect taxation and death duties) is rejected by Reichstag. Bulow resigns; succeeded by Bethmann-Hollweg (Chancellor 1909-1917) 1911 Feb. German Army Bill is passed by Reichstag May A degree of autonomy permitted to Alsace-Lorraine Jul. Agadir Incident

1912 Jan. Socialists become the largest party in the Reichstag (with llO seats) for the first time May Army and Naval Bills demanding further expansion are passed by Reichstag

The First World War and the Fall of the Second German Empire (1914-1920) 1914 1 Aug. Germany declares war on Russia. German-Ottoman Treaty signed 2 Aug. Germany occupies Luxembourg and demands transit through Belgium to attack France 3 Aug. Germany declares war on France 4 Aug. Britain and Belgium declare war on Germany Aug. In the West, German invasion of Belgium and Luxembourg to implement the (modified) Schlieffen Plan. In the East, Hindenburg (appointed Commander in East Prussia, with Ludendorff as Chief-ofStaff), defeats Russians at Tannenburg Sep. On the Western Front, the Schlieffen Plan objective of the capture of Paris is frustrated by French and British action at the First Battle of the Marne. On the Eastern Front, the Russians are roundly defeated at the Masurian Lakes. Falkenhayn replaces Moltke as German Commander-in-Chief Oct. Germans advance into Russian Poland Nov. Hindenburg appointed Commander-in-Chief on the Eastern Front

Sep.-Nov. Southern Front: Gennan-Austrian-Bulgarian attack on Serbia; Serbs beaten at Kosovo and Serbia occupied

1917 Jan. German-Austrian occupation of Bucharest and most of Rumania Feb.+ German arnlY on defensive on Western Front Apr. U.S.A. declares war on lJeTmany. William II promises universal suffrage in Prussia Jut. Bettmann-Hollweg replaced as Chancellor by Michaelis (July to November 1917). Mutiny in the German fleet. Reichstag passes motion for peace Aug. Kuhlmann becomes Foreign Minister Sep. On the Eastern Front, the Germans resist a Russian summer offensive and advance to capture Riga Ort. German offensive on the Western Front Nov. On the Western Front, the Hindenburg line is broken by a British offensive; on the Eastern Front, the new Bolshevik government in Russia sues for peace Dec. Hostilities are suspended on the Eastern Front during negotiations for a separate peace between Germany and Bolshevik Russia. Michaelis replaced as Chancellor by Hertling (December 1917September 1918) 1918 Jan. Strikes in Berlin Feb. German advance on Eastern Front, capturing Minsk, Reval, Kiev and Odessa Mar. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: Bolshevik Russia secures peace at the price of enormous losses in territory to the Greater German Empire and its client-states Mar.-Apr. First German offensive on the Western Front during 1918 May Prussian Diet rejects universal suffrage May-Jun. Second German offensive on the Western Front Jul. Third (and last) German offensive on the Western Front Sep. Germans retreat to Siegfried Line. Hindenburg proposes armistice. Hertling replaced as Chancellor by Prince Max of Baden (September-November 1918) Oct. Germany asks President Wilson of U.S.A. for armistice. Ludendorff dismissed. William II publishes democratic reform of the