ABSTRACT
This chapter discusses two types of cases in natural languages. There are, giving the meaning of a remark by translation and giving the meaning of a word in a remark by translation, and in both cases in direct translation and affirmative statement. A Frenchman could ask for the meaning of the phrase Dutch nightingale in an English remark and correctly be told that it meant grenouille. Few kinds of equivalence may be considered in an utterance-expression. Translation would be absurd to criticize Dryden's translation of the first line of Vergil's Aeneid on the ground that the English word arms have other meanings than 'implements of war' which are not shared by Latin arma. A language which had no words for former and latter would pose no serious problem for translators, who might render, according to the context, by such phrases as 'the other speaker', 'the second man'.
