ABSTRACT
The role of the media in human societies can be broadly understood in three ways. First, media texts (e.g., books, newspapers, films, etc.) are records of various aspects of human lives. By studying these texts, we can gain knowledge about major social events and notable human accomplishments; media texts may also reflect the beliefs and values of individual authors and/or of a whole community. Second, the creation, diffusion, and adoption of media technologies are themselves important markers of the development of specific civilizations (cf. McLuhan, 1964; Rogers, 1995). They are important indicators of human societies’ technological advancements, social and political changes, and cultural heritages. Third, both media texts and the related technologies can influence a society and its people. Such “media effects” may be microscopic and direct. For example, exposure to media content can lead to changes in individual users’ beliefs, emotions, and behavior through various social and psychological processes (see Bryant and Oliver, 2008, for a comprehensive review). The influence of media can also be macroscopic and indirect. For instance, freedom of information expressed through mass communication is believed to be contributory and necessary to the social and economic development of a nation (Schramm, 1964); unequal access to media and information in a society can lead to social stratification and instability (Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien, 1970), and media exposure can help cultivate conventional cultural beliefs and consciousness (Gerbner et al., 2002).
