ABSTRACT
Like other forms of ‘scholastic theology,’ Islamic scholasticism— designated as Kalām—arose early in the history of Islam as a deliberate attempt to subject the data of revelation to the scrutiny of reason, especially where such data appeared to involve internal contradiction. The main impetus to ‘rationalize’ theology came from Greek philosophy, which was transmitted to the Arabs through the Christian, Syriac medium. The Syriac Christians had, at Antioch, Edessa, and other seats of Hellenic learning, recognized the need to turn to the Greek masters for the deepening of their understanding of some logical concepts underlying theological discussions. As early as the fifth century, Ibas (d. 457), the Nestorian bishop of Edessa, made Syriac versions of Theodore of Mopseustia's theological works and, as a sort of propaedeutic to its study, he translated the Isagoge of Porphyry and the Hermeneutica of Aristotle. 1 By the beginning of the eighth century the Arabs were beginning to receive the impact of Greek ideas. Khālid b. Yazīd (d. 704), the Umayyad prince who dabbled in alchemy, is said to have provided for the translation of some works on alchemy, medicine and astrology from Greek into Arabic. 2 The impact of Hellenism, however, did not set in in full before the ninth century, which saw the setting up by Ma'mūn (d. 833), an enlightened but doctrinaire caliph, of a very active centre of translation. 3 It is no coincidence that during that period Islamic scholastic theology displayed its utmost vitality; so that the ultimate form and content of theological discussion can be said to have been determined by the bold, and very often original, speculation of the theologians of this period. Under the influence of Hellenism, those theologians were beginning to subject the Koranic concepts of creation, predestination, divine justice and providence, etc., to the scrutiny of Greek dialectic. The Mu‘tazila (or at any rate their Qadari forerunners) are generally believed to have initiated serious theological discussion in Islam; probably in emulation of Christian theologians with whom they came in contact at Damascus, Basrah and elsewhere. 4 Whatever the extent of Christian influence on the early Mu‘tazilite theologians of Islam, it is certain that they came decisively under the impact of Greek ideas, and it is significant that their Ash‘arite opponents taunt them continually with having studied the works of the (Greek) philosophers. 5 We should guard, however, against the illusion that this influence was either uniform or systematic. Despite the fact that from the start the interest of the Syrian translators of the Greek masters centred mainly round Aristotle and his logical works for the reasons we have explained, the early Mu‘tazilite doctors who prepared the ground for the later development of Kalām and its occasionalist world-view, showed a greater predilection for the teaching of the pre-Socratics than for that of Aristotle or Plato. 6
