ABSTRACT
Experiments in military modernization had been underway in Iran since the early eighteenth century. It was only with the establishment of the Persian Cossack Brigade in 1879 that the central government could enjoy a modicum of military power. Mozaffar al-Din Shah had served as crown prince since 1861, when he was made governor of Azerbaijan: the traditional assignment for training Qajar crown princes. Instead of using this position to learn about statecraft, Mozaffar al-Din focused on enjoying himself. Although the new monarch at first gave the appearance of supporting the new constitution and its legislative body, Mohammad Ali Shah was in fact opposed to the ways in which this new set of laws and assembly limited his powers, and so began to wage indirect war against this new system. The reinstatement of the 1876 constitution had unleashed enormous pent-up waves of political energy, shown by active debates in parliament and the vibrant energy of the newly uncensored press.
